did you apply for study by assignment meaning

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Why did you choose this course? 7 sample answers + more

Life is short, and we have to make choices. It would be great to have a chance to attend ten different universities, try each one for one year, see what you like and what you don’t, and just then pick one of the courses , and eventually earn your degree or qualification in the field. We do not have such a luxury though, because with bills to pay or family to feed (and sometimes both), you cannot study until your late thirties. The key is to choose the right course at the school of your choice, earn your qualification or degree , and start working. The sooner the better…

People sitting in school admission committees always want to know why you decided for this or that course. You may also deal with this question on an application form. And it makes a perfect sense, because your motivation, and how badly you want this , will often determine whether you manage to complete the course , and earn the qualification you aim for, or will quit when facing the first challenges.

Let’s have a look at 7 sample answers to this tricky question. I tried to include answers for various courses (computer science, agriculture, health and medicine, law, social studies, etc), but more importantly , expressing different reasons that motivated each student to apply for this or that course. I hope at least one of the answers will resonate with your own motives (or perhaps it will help you to finally understand them). Below the answers you will find some additional hints on how to make the right impression on the people who will read or hear your answer. Make sure to also check them out!

7 sample answers to “Why did you choose this course?” interview question

• I choose the course in computer science for three main reasons . First of all, I still is it as a most perspective career going forward. With the boom of robotics and artificial intelligence, the job prospects are as good as ever. Secondly, I have always excelled in Math and logic , and I believe to have what it takes to become a top-notch programmer one day. Last but not least, my brother studies at your school , so I get a first-hand information about both the lessons and the campus life. And I really like what he told me about this place. Summarized and underlined, I cannot imagine a better place and a better course for my future than this one.
• My choice of social studies has a lot to do with my personal beliefs and values . I have always felt for the underprivileged, perhaps because I also come from a poor neighborhood, and didn’t have it easy in my childhood. And while I am smart enough to know the battle against inequality in the world will always be futile , I also believe that we can, at least in cases of individual families and people, make a positive difference as social workers. And that is exactly what I aspire to–to become a social worker one day, and to work with families in need. Logically I want to study social work, and your college is a great place to do so, since it is in my city, and has a good reputation. This is basically why I decided to apply for this course, and not for some another one.
• I choose your course in business and management because I am yet uncertain about my future . From all courses one can study at this university, I feel this one is the most universal one. Because each place needs good mangers , and one can start their own business in any field–as long as they have the knowledge, and can manage such an operation. What’s more, I have a spirit of an entrepreneur , and I definitely play with an idea of starting my own business once I finish my studies. Even for such a career path, this is the best course I can study.
• My answer may surprise you, but the main reason for my choice is climate change . I know that agriculture plays such a big role in climate change. And I want to study sustainable agriculture, and learn how could I–from my position in some company, or a position of a farm owner, help to save this beautiful planet . I am firm believer in education and connections though. Of course, once can become an activist, or a minimalist, and contribute to the positive difference in their own way. But that’s not my path, and I see this course in sustainable agriculture as the first step on the path I want to follow in this field. Let’s hope I can get in, and embark on this fascinating journey.
• I choose this course because I see it as the next step on the journey towards my dream , which is running my own vet clinic in this city. I’ve been a dog and cat lover since my youth, having pets, volunteering in shelters, advocating for animal rights. But I also want to make my career in the field, earn my living while helping the animals . And for that I cannot just remain a volunteer… I want to earn a degree, gain some experience, and eventually run a vet clinic here, one that people will just love to visit, because the attention and love the animals will get there will be unmatched anywhere else in the city.
• I’ve been always a creative soul . Enjoyed writing, drawing, and since I was 10 years old I already composed simple pieces of music. Your college has an excellent reputation, and some of my favorite designers have studied here , have completed the same course. That’s basically why I have chosen it, since I believe that in order to get closer to our role models, we have to follow a similar path as they did in life. And one other thing– I just love this city . It is extremely inspirational to me, just walking the streets, watching the architecture, the lights, everything. I believe I will one day create some masterpiece here…
• Let me tell you a story . One year ago, I accompanied my grandmother to a notary. She was selling her house, because she wanted to move to another city, with a better climate. Definitely helps in an old age. The entire transaction took thirty minutes. We met with the buyers, the notary made digital copies of the documents, explained the transaction to both parties, and they signed documents. Just then I learned about the commission for the notary: It was $3,000. Of course, the commission depended on the price of the house, but still I found it fascinating, that she made $3,000 in thirty minutes of work. On that day I decided that I want to study law . I also want to become a notary one day. And though I know many years have to pass and it won’t be an easy journey, I consider myself an excellent student, and definitely know that it is possible. This course is the first step on my career journey.

If you face the question in an interview, make sure to show some enthusiasm for the course

The words you say are one thing , the impression your interviewers get another. When talking about your decision in the interviews, you should show some enthusiasm for the years ahead , for the course you are going to study. Now it doesn’t mean that you have to scream from excitement, or shed tears while talking to the admission committee. But you should be pumped for the opportunity, and they should hear the enthusiasm in your voice. This is the day you have been waiting for . Finally you are here, just one step away from starting the course you dream of completing . That’s exactly the impression they should get!

Do not forget to praise their educational institution

The subject of the course is one thing, but in an ideal answer to this question you should also praise their school. Because, as you know for sure, you can study law (or computer science, or medicine, or whatever) at many schools and universities in your country and elsewhere. But why have you chosen the course at their school? It can be their reputation, recommendation from a friend, your love for the city , it can be anything. Check the sample answers again to get some ideas.

Ready to answer this one? I hope so! Do not forget to check also sample answers to other tricky interview questions:

• Does your academic record accurately reflect your capabilities?
• What do you hope to learn from this course?
• Why did you choose this university?
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How To Answer: “Why Did You Choose To Study This Degree?”

Why did you choose to study this degree.

A very popular graduate interview question that can sometimes be a tough one to answer. It means you’ll have to think back to the moment you picked the degree and revisit your university motivates.

Why are you being asked this?

What use is it to the interviewer to know why you chose your degree? Well for some hiring managers it can provide a clear view on what you want in the future. Helping them decide whether your degree aligns with career plans and goals. Because in a lot of cases, candidates choose a subject area that is not relevant to their first ‘proper’ job fresh out of university.

But remember this doesn’t have to dictate your future career . If this is the case for you, you’ll need to be able to answer with a brief explanation and ability to fit your degree to the job at stake. But don’t worry we discuss this in more detail later on in the blog

Most graduates will fit into one or more of these categories:

Lifelong career choice

For some of you, you’re lucky enough to have known the course you wanted to study for as long as you can remember and have had a clear picture of where it will hopefully lead you.

“I chose my degree because it has always been an essential part of my career journey.”

To express this in an interview, it’s important to demonstrate your assurance and passion in your area of expertise. Adding that a career within this industry is a natural progression, to build upon your experience and take your knowledge to the next level.

General degree to keep your career options open

For other job seekers a more generalist approach is best suited towards your course choices. You selected your degree on the basis that it would provide you with a good academic foundation for a wide variety of potential career options. For example, English, Sociology and History courses provide vital skills that can be transferred into different marketing, teaching and law paths.

There is nothing wrong with choosing a degree simply because you enjoy the subject. Not every interview answer has to be about how passionate you are about the role. If you are honest and genuine about your reasoning, its far more likely to gain the interviewers trust.

Uncertainty

How not to answer

“Well I’m not actually sure why I picked this degree, it felt right at the time but looking back I don’t think it has benefited me or my career.”

Even if you have changed your mind or you did not particularly like what you studied at university, the interviewer does not need to know this. So for all of you unsure candidates, keep it simple. In your answer you might want to explain that at the time you enjoyed the subject area and whilst it may not be directly focused to your career choice now, you’re grateful for the opportunities it has opened you up to. Find an example answer below.

How to answer

“I chose my degree because it was something I enjoyed. I wasn’t really thinking ‘career’ at this point in my life and was unsure of my future options. However now looking back at my time spent at university I am grateful for the routes it has opened me up to. Adapting my degree to future career was definitely a harder route. It required me to go out and gain work experience, to learn things I didn’t at university and to really put myself out there. The knowledge I gained from doing so provided me with a foundation of skills, that I think are so incredibly valuable for my career.”

Thank you for this useful article! I am searching for a job right now and your tips are very on time!

Frankly speaking, when I choose to study a degree at the university I still was in doubts all the time what profession to choose… I really thought that it is a lifelong career choice and that scared me a lot. As you can’t be sure about the whole life… I studied the law, but today I am a writer ( check EduBirdie website ) and it is something I really enjoy. Today I can combine my knowledge of the law with my writing passion. The advice I can give to all the job seekers is following your heart, do what you love and practice as much as you can!

Thank you for your advice.

please how to answer that question? describe your knowledge of the subject you’d like to teach?

Thanks for that my dear fellas!

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Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Types of Assignments

Cristy Bartlett and Kate Derrington

Introduction

As discussed in the previous chapter, assignments are a common method of assessment at university. You may encounter many assignments over your years of study, yet some will look quite different from others. By recognising different types of assignments and understanding the purpose of the task, you can direct your writing skills effectively to meet task requirements. This chapter draws on the skills from the previous chapter, and extends the discussion, showing you where to aim with different types of assignments.

The chapter begins by exploring the popular essay assignment, with its two common categories, analytical and argumentative essays. It then examines assignments requiring case study responses , as often encountered in fields such as health or business. This is followed by a discussion of assignments seeking a report (such as a scientific report) and reflective writing assignments, common in nursing, education and human services. The chapter concludes with an examination of annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of  your assignment writing skills.

Different Types of Written Assignments

At university, an essay is a common form of assessment. In the previous chapter Writing Assignments we discussed what was meant by showing academic writing in your assignments. It is important that you consider these aspects of structure, tone and language when writing an essay.

Components of an essay

Essays should use formal but reader friendly language and have a clear and logical structure. They must include research from credible academic sources such as peer reviewed journal articles and textbooks. This research should be referenced throughout your essay to support your ideas (See the chapter Working with Information ).

If you have never written an essay before, you may feel unsure about how to start.  Breaking your essay into sections and allocating words accordingly will make this process more manageable and will make planning the overall essay structure much easier.

• An essay requires an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion.
• Generally, an introduction and conclusion are approximately 10% each of the total word count.
• The remaining words can then be divided into sections and a paragraph allowed for each area of content you need to cover.
• Use your task and criteria sheet to decide what content needs to be in your plan

An effective essay introduction needs to inform your reader by doing four basic things:

Table 20.1 An effective essay

An effective essay body paragraph needs to:

An effective essay conclusion needs to:

Common types of essays

You may be required to write different types of essays, depending on your study area and topic. Two of the most commonly used essays are analytical and argumentative .  The task analysis process discussed in the previous chapter Writing Assignments will help you determine the type of essay required. For example, if your assignment question uses task words such as analyse, examine, discuss, determine or explore, you would be writing an analytical essay . If your assignment question has task words such as argue, evaluate, justify or assess, you would be writing an argumentative essay . Despite the type of essay, your ability to analyse and think critically is important and common across genres.  

Analytical essays

These essays usually provide some background description of the relevant theory, situation, problem, case, image, etcetera that is your topic. Being analytical requires you to look carefully at various components or sections of your topic in a methodical and logical way to create understanding.

The purpose of the analytical essay is to demonstrate your ability to examine the topic thoroughly. This requires you to go deeper than description by considering different sides of the situation, comparing and contrasting a variety of theories and the positives and negatives of the topic. Although in an analytical essay your position on the topic may be clear, it is not necessarily a requirement that you explicitly identify this with a thesis statement, as is the case with an argumentative essay. If you are unsure whether you are required to take a position, and provide a thesis statement, it is best to check with your tutor.

Argumentative essays

These essays require you to take a position on the assignment topic. This is expressed through your thesis statement in your introduction. You must then present and develop your arguments throughout the body of your assignment using logically structured paragraphs. Each of these paragraphs needs a topic sentence that relates to the thesis statement. In an argumentative essay, you must reach a conclusion based on the evidence you have presented.

Case Study Responses

Case studies are a common form of assignment in many study areas and students can underperform in this genre for a number of key reasons.

Students typically lose marks for not:

• Relating their answer sufficiently to the case details
• Applying critical thinking
• Writing with clear structure
• Using appropriate or sufficient sources
• Using accurate referencing

When structuring your response to a case study, remember to refer to the case. Structure your paragraphs similarly to an essay paragraph structure but include examples and data from the case as additional evidence to support your points (see Figure 20.5 ). The colours in the sample paragraph below show the function of each component.

The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (NMBA) Code of Conduct and Nursing Standards (2018) play a crucial role in determining the scope of practice for nurses and midwives. A key component discussed in the code is the provision of person-centred care and the formation of therapeutic relationships between nurses and patients (NMBA, 2018). This ensures patient safety and promotes health and wellbeing (NMBA, 2018). The standards also discuss the importance of partnership and shared decision-making in the delivery of care (NMBA, 2018, 4). Boyd and Dare (2014) argue that good communication skills are vital for building therapeutic relationships and trust between patients and care givers. This will help ensure the patient is treated with dignity and respect and improve their overall hospital experience. In the case, the therapeutic relationship with the client has been compromised in several ways. Firstly, the nurse did not conform adequately to the guidelines for seeking informed consent before performing the examination as outlined in principle 2.3 (NMBA, 2018). Although she explained the procedure, she failed to give the patient appropriate choices regarding her health care. 

Topic sentence | Explanations using paraphrased evidence including in-text references | Critical thinking (asks the so what? question to demonstrate your student voice). | Relating the theory back to the specifics of the case. The case becomes a source of examples as extra evidence to support the points you are making.

Reports are a common form of assessment at university and are also used widely in many professions. It is a common form of writing in business, government, scientific, and technical occupations.

Reports can take many different structures. A report is normally written to present information in a structured manner, which may include explaining laboratory experiments, technical information, or a business case.  Reports may be written for different audiences including clients, your manager, technical staff, or senior leadership within an organisation. The structure of reports can vary, and it is important to consider what format is required. The choice of structure will depend upon professional requirements and the ultimate aims of the report. Consider some of the options in the table below (see Table 20.2 ).

Table 20.2 Explanations of different types of reports

Reflective writing

Reflective writing is a popular method of assessment at university. It is used to help you explore feelings, experiences, opinions, events or new information to gain a clearer and deeper understanding of your learning. A reflective writing task requires more than a description or summary.  It requires you to analyse a situation, problem or experience, consider what you may have learnt and evaluate how this may impact your thinking and actions in the future. This requires critical thinking, analysis, and usually the application of good quality research, to demonstrate your understanding or learning from a situation. Essentially, reflective practice is the process of looking back on past experiences and engaging with them in a thoughtful way and drawing conclusions to inform future experiences. The reflection skills you develop at university will be vital in the workplace to assist you to use feedback for growth and continuous improvement. There are numerous models of reflective writing and you should refer to your subject guidelines for your expected format. If there is no specific framework, a simple model to help frame your thinking is What? So what? Now what?   (Rolfe et al., 2001).

Table 20.3 What? So What? Now What? Explained.

The Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle

The Gibbs’ Cycle of reflection encourages you to consider your feelings as part of the reflective process. There are six specific steps to work through. Following this model carefully and being clear of the requirements of each stage, will help you focus your thinking and reflect more deeply. This model is popular in Health.

The 4 R’s of reflective thinking

This model (Ryan and Ryan, 2013) was designed specifically for university students engaged in experiential learning.  Experiential learning includes any ‘real-world’ activities including practice led activities, placements and internships.  Experiential learning, and the use of reflective practice to heighten this learning, is common in Creative Arts, Health and Education.

Annotated Bibliography

What is it.

An annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of appropriate sources (books, journals or websites) on a topic, accompanied by a brief summary, evaluation and sometimes an explanation or reflection on their usefulness or relevance to your topic. Its purpose is to teach you to research carefully, evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. An annotated bibliography may be one part of a larger assessment item or a stand-alone assessment piece. Check your task guidelines for the number of sources you are required to annotate and the word limit for each entry.

How do I know what to include?

When choosing sources for your annotated bibliography it is important to determine:

• The topic you are investigating and if there is a specific question to answer
• The type of sources on which you need to focus
• Whether they are reputable and of high quality

What do I say?

Important considerations include:

• Is the work current?
• Is the work relevant to your topic?
• Is the author credible/reliable?
• Is there any author bias?
• The strength and limitations (this may include an evaluation of research methodology).

Literature Reviews

It is easy to get confused by the terminology used for literature reviews. Some tasks may be described as a systematic literature review when actually the requirement is simpler; to review the literature on the topic but do it in a systematic way. There is a distinct difference (see Table 20.4 ). As a commencing undergraduate student, it is unlikely you would be expected to complete a systematic literature review as this is a complex and more advanced research task. It is important to check with your lecturer or tutor if you are unsure of the requirements.

Table 20.4 Comparison of Literature Reviews

Generally, you are required to establish the main ideas that have been written on your chosen topic. You may also be expected to identify gaps in the research. A literature review does not summarise and evaluate each resource you find (this is what you would do in an annotated bibliography). You are expected to analyse and synthesise or organise common ideas from multiple texts into key themes which are relevant to your topic (see Figure 20.10 ). Use a table or a spreadsheet, if you know how, to organise the information you find. Record the full reference details of the sources as this will save you time later when compiling your reference list (see Table 20.5 ).

Overall, this chapter has provided an introduction to the types of assignments you can expect to complete at university, as well as outlined some tips and strategies with examples and templates for completing them. First, the chapter investigated essay assignments, including analytical and argumentative essays. It then examined case study assignments, followed by a discussion of the report format. Reflective writing , popular in nursing, education and human services, was also considered. Finally, the chapter briefly addressed annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of your assignment writing skills.

• Not all assignments at university are the same. Understanding the requirements of different types of assignments will assist in meeting the criteria more effectively.
• There are many different types of assignments. Most will require an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion.
• An essay should have a clear and logical structure and use formal but reader friendly language.
• Breaking your assignment into manageable chunks makes it easier to approach.
• Effective body paragraphs contain a topic sentence.
• A case study structure is similar to an essay, but you must remember to provide examples from the case or scenario to demonstrate your points.
• The type of report you may be required to write will depend on its purpose and audience. A report requires structured writing and uses headings.
• Reflective writing is popular in many disciplines and is used to explore feelings, experiences, opinions or events to discover what learning or understanding has occurred. Reflective writing requires more than description. You need to be analytical, consider what has been learnt and evaluate the impact of this on future actions.
• Annotated bibliographies teach you to research and evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. They may be part of a larger assignment.
• Literature reviews require you to look across the literature and analyse and synthesise the information you find into themes.

Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford.

Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., Jasper, M. (2001). Critical reflection in nursing and the helping professions: a user’s guide . Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ryan, M. & Ryan, M. (2013). Theorising a model for teaching and assessing reflective learning in higher education.  Higher Education Research & Development , 32(2), 244-257. doi: 10.1080/07294360.2012.661704

Academic Success Copyright © 2021 by Cristy Bartlett and Kate Derrington is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Understanding the Assignment

There are four kinds of analysis you need to do in order to fully understand an assignment: determining the purpose of the assignment , understanding how to answer an assignment’s questions , recognizing implied questions in the assignment , and recognizing the disciplinary expectations of the assignment .

Always make sure you fully understand an assignment before you start writing!

Determining the Purpose

The wording of an assignment should suggest its purpose. Any of the following might be expected of you in a college writing assignment:

• Summarizing information
• Analyzing ideas and concepts
• Taking a position and defending it
• Combining ideas from several sources and creating your own original argument.

Understanding How to Answer the Assignment

College writing assignments will ask you to answer a how or why question – questions that can’t be answered with just facts. For example, the question “ What are the names of the presidents of the US in the last twenty years?” needs only a list of facts to be answered. The question “ Who was the best president of the last twenty years and why?”  requires you to take a position and support that position with evidence.

Sometimes, a list of prompts may appear with an assignment. Remember, your instructor will not expect you to answer all of the questions listed. They are simply offering you some ideas so that you can think of your own questions to ask.

Recognizing Implied Questions

A prompt may not include a clear ‘how’ or ‘why’ question, though one is always implied by the language of the prompt. For example:

“Discuss the effects of the No Child Left Behind Act on special education programs” is asking you to write how the act has affected special education programs. “Consider the recent rise of autism diagnoses” is asking you to write why the diagnoses of autism are on the rise.

Recognizing Disciplinary Expectations

Depending on the discipline in which you are writing, different features and formats of your writing may be expected. Always look closely at key terms and vocabulary in the writing assignment, and be sure to note what type of evidence and citations style your instructor expects.

About Writing: A Guide Copyright © 2015 by Robin Jeffrey is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Assignments usually ask you to demonstrate that you have immersed yourself in the course material and that you've done some thinking on your own; questions not treated at length in class often serve as assignments. Fortunately, if you've put the time into getting to know the material, then you've almost certainly begun thinking independently. In responding to assignments, keep in mind the following advice.

• Beware of straying.  Especially in the draft stage, "discussion" and "analysis" can lead you from one intrinsically interesting problem to another, then another, and then ... You may wind up following a garden of forking paths and lose your way. To prevent this, stop periodically while drafting your essay and reread the assignment. Its purposes are likely to become clearer.
• Consider the assignment in relation to previous and upcoming assignments.  Ask yourself what is new about the task you're setting out to do. Instructors often design assignments to build in complexity. Knowing where an assignment falls in this progression can help you concentrate on the specific, fresh challenges at hand.

Understanding some key words commonly used in assignments also may simplify your task. Toward this end, let's take a look at two seemingly impenetrable instructions: "discuss" and "analyze."

1. Discuss the role of gender in bringing about the French Revolution.

• "Discuss" is easy to misunderstand because the word calls to mind the oral/spoken dimension of communication. "Discuss" suggests conversation, which often is casual and undirected. In the context of an assignment, however, discussion entails fulfilling a defined and organized task: to construct an argument that considers and responds to an ample range of materials. To "discuss," in assignment language, means to make a broad argument about a set of arguments you have studied. In the case above, you can do this by
• pointing to consistencies and inconsistencies in the evidence of gendered causes of the Revolution;
• raising the implications of these consistencies and/or inconsistencies (perhaps they suggest a limited role for gender as catalyst);
• evaluating different claims about the role of gender; and
• asking what is gained and what is lost by focusing on gendered symbols, icons and events.

A weak discussion essay in response to the question above might simply list a few aspects of the Revolution—the image of Liberty, the executions of the King and Marie Antoinette, the cry "Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite!" —and make separate comments about how each, being "gendered," is therefore a powerful political force. Such an essay would offer no original thesis, but instead restate the question asked in the assignment (i.e., "The role of gender was very important in the French Revolution" or "Gender did not play a large role in the French Revolution").

In a strong discussion essay, the thesis would go beyond a basic restatement of the assignment question. You might test the similarities and differences of the revolutionary aspects being discussed. You might draw on fresh or unexpected evidence, perhaps using as a source an intriguing reading that was only briefly touched upon in lecture.

2. Analyze two of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, including one not discussed in class, as literary works and in terms of sources/analogues.

The words "analyze" and "analysis" may seem to denote highly advanced, even arcane skills, possessed in virtual monopoly by mathematicians and scientists. Happily, the terms refer to mental activity we all perform regularly; the terms just need decoding. "Analyze" means two things in this specific assignment prompt.

• First, you need to divide the two tales into parts, elements, or features. You might start with a basic approach: looking at the beginning, middle, and end. These structural features of literary works—and of historical events and many other subjects of academic study—may seem simple or even simplistic, but they can yield surprising insights when examined closely.
• Alternatively, you might begin at a more complex level of analysis. For example, you might search for and distinguish between kinds of humor in the two tales and their sources in Boccaccio or the Roman de la Rose: banter, wordplay, bawdy jokes, pranks, burlesque, satire, etc.

Second, you need to consider the two tales critically to arrive at some reward for having observed how the tales are made and where they came from (their sources/analogues). In the course of your essay, you might work your way to investigating Chaucer's broader attitude toward his sources, which alternates between playful variation and strict adherence. Your complex analysis of kinds of humor might reveal differing conceptions of masculine and feminine between Chaucer and his literary sources, or some other important cultural distinction.

Analysis involves both a set of observations about the composition or workings of your subject and a critical approach that keeps you from noticing just anything—from excessive listing or summarizing—and instead leads you to construct an interpretation, using textual evidence to support your ideas.

Some Final Advice

If, having read the assignment carefully, you're still confused by it, don't hesitate to ask for clarification from your instructor. He or she may be able to elucidate the question or to furnish some sample responses to the assignment. Knowing the expectations of an assignment can help when you're feeling puzzled. Conversely, knowing the boundaries can head off trouble if you're contemplating an unorthodox approach. In either case, before you go to your instructor, it's a good idea to list, underline or circle the specific places in the assignment where the language makes you feel uncertain.

William C. Rice, for the Writing Center at Harvard University

Module 7: Study Skills

What to do with essay assignments, learning objectives.

• Identify how to approach common types of college writing tasks

Writing assignments can be as varied as the instructors who assign them. Some assignments are explicit about what exactly you’ll need to do, in what order, and how it will be graded. Some assignments are very open-ended, leaving you to determine the best path toward answering the project. Most fall somewhere in the middle, containing details about some aspects but leaving other assumptions unstated. It’s important to remember that your first resource for getting clarification about an assignment is your instructor—she or he will be very willing to talk out ideas with you, to be sure you’re prepared at each step to do well with the writing.

Most writing in college will be a direct response to class materials—an assigned reading, a discussion in class, an experiment in a lab. Generally speaking, these writing tasks can be divided into three broad categories.

Summary Assignments

Being asked to summarize a source is a common task in many types of writing. It can also seem like a straightforward task: simply restate, in shorter form, what the source says. A lot of advanced skills are hidden in this seemingly simple assignment, however.

An effective summary does the following:

• reflects your accurate understanding of a source’s thesis or purpose
• differentiates between major and minor ideas in a source
• demonstrates your ability to identify key phrases to quote
• demonstrates your ability to effectively paraphrase most of the source’s ideas
• captures the tone, style, and distinguishing features of a source
• does not reflect your personal opinion about the source

That last point is often the most challenging: we are opinionated creatures, by nature, and it can be very difficult to keep our opinions from creeping into a summary, which is meant to be completely neutral.

In college-level writing, assignments that are only summary are rare. That said, many types of writing tasks contain at least some element of summary, from a biology report that explains what happened during a chemical process, to an analysis essay that requires you to explain what several prominent positions about gun control are, as a component of comparing them against one another.

Defined-Topic Assignments

Many writing tasks will ask you to address a particular topic or a narrow set of topic options. Even with the topic identified, however, it can sometimes be difficult to determine what aspects of the writing will be most important when it comes to grading.

Often, the handout or other written text explaining the assignment—what professors call the assignment prompt —will explain the purpose of the assignment, the required parameters (length, number and type of sources, referencing style, etc.), and the criteria for evaluation. Sometimes, though—especially when you are new to a field—you will encounter the baffling situation in which you comprehend every single sentence in the prompt but still have absolutely no idea how to approach the assignment. No one is doing anything wrong in a situation like that. It just means that further discussion of the assignment is in order. Below are some tips:

• Focus on the verbs . Look for verbs like compare, explain, justify, reflect , or the all-purpose analyze . You’re not just producing a paper as an artifact; you’re conveying, in written communication, some intellectual work you have done. So the question is, what kind of thinking are you supposed to do to deepen your learning?
• Put the assignment in context . Many professors think in terms of assignment sequences. For example, a social science professor may ask you to write about a controversial issue three times: first, they will ask you to argue for one side of the debate and then they will ask you to argue for another. Finally, you’ll be asked for a more comprehensive and nuanced perspective by incorporating text produced in the first two assignments. A sequence like that is designed to help you think through a complex issue. If the assignment isn’t part of a sequence, think about where it falls in the span of the course (early, midterm, or toward the end), and how it relates to readings and other assignments. For example, if you see that a paper comes at the end of a three-week unit on the role of the Internet in organizational behavior, then your professor likely wants you to synthesize that material in your own way.
• Try a free-write . A free-write is when you just write, without stopping, for a set period of time. The “free” part is what you write—it can be whatever comes to mind. Professional writers use free-writing to get started on a challenging writing task or to overcome writer’s block or a powerful urge to procrastinate. The idea is that if you just make yourself write, you can’t help but produce some kind of useful nugget. Thus, even if the first eight sentences of your free-write are all variations on “I don’t understand this” or “I’d really rather be doing something else,” eventually you’ll write something like “I guess the main point of this is . . . ,” and you’re off and running.
• Ask for clarification . Even the most carefully crafted assignments may need some verbal clarification, especially if you’re new to a course or field. Try to convey to your instructor that you want to learn and you’re ready to work, and not just looking for advice on how to get an A.

Although the topic may be defined, you can’t just grind out four or five pages of discussion, explanation, or analysis. It may seem strange, but even when you’re asked to “show how” or “illustrate,” you’re still being asked to make an argument. You must shape and focus that discussion or analysis so that it supports a claim that you discovered and formulated and that all of your discussion and explanation develops and supports. 

Defined-topic writing assignments are used primarily to identify your familiarity with the subject matter.

Undefined-Topic Assignments

Another writing assignment you’ll potentially encounter is one in which the topic may be only broadly identified (“water conservation” in an ecology course, for instance, or “the Dust Bowl” in a U.S. History course), or even completely open (“compose an argumentative research essay on a subject of your choice”).

Where defined-topic essays demonstrate your knowledge of the content , undefined-topic assignments are used to demonstrate your skills — your ability to perform academic research, to synthesize ideas, and to apply the various stages of the writing process.

The first hurdle with this type of task is to find a focus that interests you. Don’t just pick something you feel will be “easy to write about”—that almost always turns out to be a false assumption. Instead, you’ll get the most value out of, and find it easier to work on, a topic that intrigues you personally in some way.

The same getting-started ideas described for defined-topic assignments will help with these kinds of projects, too.  You can also try talking with your instructor or a writing tutor (at your college’s writing center) to help brainstorm ideas and make sure you’re on track. You want to feel confident that you’ve got a clear idea of what it means to be successful in the writing and not waste time working in a direction that won’t be fruitful.

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Before you start your assessment make sure you understand what you have been asked to do.

Read the question

Read the assessment question or task slowly and carefully. As you do, ask yourself:

• What's the question about? What's the topic?
• What does the question mean?
• What do I have to do?

Try rewriting it using your own words using the format below:

‘This assessment is about ______________________ I have to___________________’

Also check for information about the assessment and what’s expected of you in your course materials, talk channels or messages from your course leader.

Analyse the question

Look at the question and identify the instruction , topic and limiting words .

Instruction words

Instruction words tell you what to do. Do you need to analyse, discuss, evaluate, summarise or something else?

Here’s some common instruction words:

• Analyse – examine the main ideas and issues of a topic, look at arguments for or against, and show their relationships.
• Describe – explain and explore the meaning or main features of something.
• Discuss – examine and analyse key points and possible interpretations; give arguments for and against, and draw a conclusion.
• Evaluate – give an opinion (with evidence) on the strength or weakness of something

More assessment instruction words and their meanings

Topic words

Topic words tell you what you need to write about – what you need to analyse, argue, discuss, and so on.

You can identify them by taking the instruction word and putting ‘what’ after them. For example, discuss what? Describe what?

Limiting words

Limiting words narrow down your topic and let you know what to focus on. This might be a certain time, place, or part of a topic.

Examples of instruction, topic and limiting words:

• Instruction – Critically examine  – analyse the positive and negatives of
• Topic – the Warehouse's marketing strategy  – what you need to write about
• Limiting words – the success  – don't just describe the strategy, focus on how it is or is not successful. 

• Instruction –   Write a report  / outline –  ensure you follow an appropriate report format that gives a clear description and explanation
• Topic –  structural systems show in Building A and Building B  – what you need to write about
• Limiting words –  the advantages and disadvantages of each system   – make sure you cover each of these for A and B.

• Instruction –  Choose / compare  – make sure you are comparing two things, and not just describing them in isolation
• Topic –  two education philosophers  – what you need to write about
• Limiting words – how their philosophies have influenced education today  – focus on how each of these philosophies have influenced modern education. 

Tip – When you find something about the assessment in your course materials or course talk channel, bookmark it and keep a note of it. This will help you when you start your research.

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Getting Students to Apply What They Have Learned in a New Context

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• Student Learning /

“Knowledge without application is like a book that is never read” ~Christopher Crawford

As college teachers, we want students to think deeply about course content and skills, yet sometimes it feels like students never progress beyond surface-level understanding.

One of the best ways to help students get to deeper learning is to have them use what they have learned in a new way.

In his taxonomy of Significant Learning, Fink (2013) suggests that application means learning how to do some new kind of action. In his taxonomy, Bloom suggests that application means students take what they’ve learned and apply it to a different scenario, often one outside of the classroom. For example, students could use a math formula they’ve learned to calculate a family budget or apply a legal ruling to a specific case in news headlines.

To make sure that students show they can apply what they learn, consider the following suggestions:

Be explicit about application

When engaging students in activities that promote the application of knowledge to new contexts, instructors should feel free to make their learning goals and expectations clear. Students will practice application better when they learn to recognize it. They will likely more willingly engage if the instructor explains the benefits of application for future learning and even career aspirations.

Focus on core concepts

Students can more effectively apply knowledge when they comprehend the core principles behind the content and skills that they need to use. You can develop activities to help students develop a deeper understanding of relationships, shared functions, or similar organizing principles prior to asking students to apply the material in new contexts.

Identify sub skills

Asking students to apply what they have learned can sound like a fairly easy task to accomplish, but in reality, it is complicated, and students may not have developed the skills they need to do it well. They need skills in differentiating, classifying, categorizing, organizing, and making attributions. They also need problem solving. It can be useful to scaffold application to highlight the subtasks until students become more comfortable with and clear on their roles and responsibilities.

Provide students with practice

Students develop the ability to apply their learning by practicing application. Instructors can present two different scenarios, formulas, or readings and ask students to find single approaches for solving or analyzing each. Alternately, they can ask students to construct a different problem or scenario that requires the same skills and knowledge as a pre-completed assignment.

Make it social and collaborative

Application of knowledge can be particularly effective when it is done in a cooperative social context that allows peers to develop explanations, provide each other with feedback, and share responsibility for learning.  

Involve students in the process

Students will be more invested in applying what they have learned if they are called upon to mindfully and explicitly search for ways to make connections, to classify, to sort, and so on. Likewise, they will be more invested if called upon to self monitor their progress and success in applying information in new ways. Self-reflection and self-assessment are great tools for accomplishing this goal.

For information about active learning techniques that prompt students to apply knowledge, see our videos for the following techniques:  

• Support a Statement
• Case Studies
• Contemporary issues journal

Suggested Citation

Barkley, E. F., & Major, C. H. (n.d.). Getting students to apply what they have learned in a new context.  CrossCurrents . https://kpcrossacademy.org/getting-students-to-apply-what-they-have-learned-in-a-new-context/

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Amanda Claybaugh, Dean of Undergraduate Education

Samuel zemurray jr. and doris zemurray stone radcliffe professor of english and harvard college professor.

How to Apply for Academic Jobs

            1) a cover letter : The cover letter is the single most important part of your application. It is the first document that the hiring committee reads, and it determines whether they will read the rest: it should therefore capture everything that makes you a compelling candidate. Cover letters most often consist of five paragraphs:

            an introduction that highlights the ways in which you're suited for this particular job             a paragraph summarizing the argument of your dissertation as a whole             a paragraph describing your other research interests, such as a second project or an article that is not part of your dissertation             a paragraph describing your teaching, both the courses you have taught and the courses you would like to teach             a boilerplate conclusion

Some cover letters may depart from the five-paragraph model, but none go over two pages: excessive length is seen as the mark of a madman, and overly small font also seems a bit crazed.

            2) a cv : The cv performs the same function as the cover letter, but in a more abbreviated form. Formats vary, and you may pick the one you prefer. Whichever format you choose, make sure you mention the following:

            your education, including the dates of all your degrees (either received or expected)             your dissertation, including title, advisors, and a 2- to 3-sentence summary             your publications, including those that are forthcoming or under review             your conference talks             your teaching experience             your prizes and fellowships

            3) a dissertation abstract : The dissertation abstract expands upon the cover letter, and it tends to do so in the following two ways. First, by elaborating the significance of your argument. In your cover letter, you summarize an argument; in your dissertation abstract, you explain why this argument matters (how does it change our understanding of your topic? how does it change our reading of the works you are focusing on?). And second, by explaining how the various parts of your dissertation connect to one another. In your cover letter, you name the authors or works you’re considering; in your dissertation abstract, you explain the distinctive role that each plays in your argument. The conventions of the dissertation abstract vary a bit, but most devote roughly a page to discussing the dissertation as a whole and roughly a page to summarizing the individual chapters. Some abstracts do depart from this structure, though, and you should think about what organization would make the most sense for your project.

            4) a writing sample : The writing sample demonstrates that you can actually make the argument that you’ve so far been simply asserting. It should therefore be made up of two parts: an extended case study, drawn from one of your dissertation chapters; and a substantial opening section, drawn from your introduction, in which you frame this case study in a discussion of your argument as a whole. The more closely your writing sample resembles a journal article, the more successful it will be: dissertations tend to get bogged down in close reading and distracted by unrelated points, but a writing sample must move confidently through an array of examples in the course of making a sustained argument. You might find it helpful to model your writing sample on articles published in a journal you admire (look, in particular, for articles taken from projects that would later be published as books: these will likely have the right mix of framing and case study). Once you finish writing this article-like writing sample, you should send it to the journal you admire, so that you’ll have a(nother) publication under review for your cv. Different committees will request writing samples of different lengths, and you should draft your sample with that in mind, constructing it out of discrete units that you can include or leave out as the length requirements demand.

            5) a job talk : The job talk does the same thing as the writing sample, but in oral form. It, too, should be made up of two parts: a substantial opening section that lays out your argument, followed by an extended case study (different from the one you offered in your writing sample). Different committees will ask for different things: some will want talks of thirty minutes (absolutely no more than 15 pages); others, talks of forty-five minutes (absolutely no more than 20 pages). Some may ask you to give a standard academic presentation; others, to present your research to undergrads.

But while these documents are fairly straightforward, they often prove to be very difficult to write. Writing them will require that you step back from the specific chapters and courses in which you’re now immersed and think about your scholarship and teaching more generally. You can do so by reflecting on the following topics:

            1) your field : Some of you will find that your dissertation falls straightforwardly into a single hiring field (twentieth-century US, eighteenth-century English, Renaissance); your task, in that case, will be to persuade hiring committees that you have mastery of the entire field—not just that part of it that is covered by your dissertation. You will, of course, claim that you do, but it is best if you back up this claim in your descriptions of courses you might teach and other research interests you might pursue. That is, if your dissertation focuses on the Victorian novel, you should describe a survey course that focuses on poetry, drama, and prose as well, and you should also propose an additional research project that touches on topics and works that you do not cover in your dissertation.

             Others will find that their dissertations fall into more than one field, crossing period or national boundaries. In this case, you will prepare two sets of materials, one for each field, and your task will be to persuade hiring committees that you are committed to whatever field they are hiring in. You should not try to conceal the fact that your dissertation crosses field boundaries; on the contrary, you should make a case for why it is necessary that it do so. But you should emphasize the field the department is hiring in when proposing courses and describing research interests. Still others of you will have written interdisciplinary dissertations, combining history and literature or literature and philosophy or touching on visual culture as well. In this case, your task is to persuade the hiring committee that your primary commitment is to literature. Once again, you should not try to conceal the interdisciplinary nature of your project, but rather make a case for it. But you should also take care to emphasize the literary in the courses and research projects you propose.

            2) your dissertation :

            a) What is the topic of your dissertation? It’s helpful to have a vivid word or phrase that you use consistently when describing your work; it’s also helpful to have a brief example of your topic that will be immediately familiar to others. And be prepared to explain where you set the limits of your topic: what doesn’t count as x , and why?

            b) What is the argument of your dissertation?

           c) How do the parts of your dissertation contribute to the argument of the whole? Some dissertations are organized chronologically (the pre-history of topic x , the height of topic x , the aftermath of topic x ); others are organized as a taxonomy.

            d) What is the significance of your argument? More specifically, how does it change our understanding of your topic? and how does your focus on this topic change our reading of the works you are considering?

            e) Why did you delimit your project in this way? How would it be different if you had   focused on another period, another nation, another genre, different authors? Is there any work you’ve left out that you should be able to account for in some way?

            f) What is the most significant change you’ll want to make as you turn this dissertation into a book?

            g) How did you come to write this dissertation? What is the narrative of its development?

            3) your teaching :

            a) You will need to prepare an array of courses you’d like to teach. You might find it useful to sketch out a syllabus for each, but listing the readings you’d assign is less important than providing a rationale for the course as a whole. You should be able to describe, in two or three sentences, what you’d want your students to learn. You’ll tailor your course offerings to specific schools, but for now you should prepare courses in the following categories:

            a multi-genre survey of your field (Renaissance Literature)             a single-genre survey of your field (Twentieth-Century Poetry)             an introductory survey course: usually either British literature to 1800, British literature after 1800, or US literature             several undergraduate seminars in your field, organized in different ways  (interdisciplinary, single-author, thematic)             several graduate seminars in your field             a first-year seminar or other intro to the major course             a writing-intensive class

            b) You should also gather anecdotes about your teaching: your greatest success; the skill you’ve struggled most to master; your most innovative assignment; your most unusual group of students.

            3) your scholarship :

            a) What other research interests are you pursuing or do you intend to pursue?

            b) What do you think is the most significant recent development in your field? How does your work relate to it?

            c) Who is the critic you most admire? Your most important intellectual influence?

              d) How does your work differ from the work of your advisors?           

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8 Understanding the assignment brief

When faced with an assignment, ask yourself the following: Do you know what the assignment is asking you to do? Are you certain that you know how to interpret the question that has been set (i.e. what approach you are expected to take)? Understanding the assignment brief and interpreting the question correctly are essential requirements.

Assignment keywords can inform you about topics, resources or a particular area that you should focus on. These ‘content’ words tend to be nouns. Other keywords and phrases instruct you on the approach that you should take in answering the assignment, often expressed as imperatives such as ‘Assess the impact of…’ or ‘Explain the importance of …’. These are ‘process words’ or ‘command verbs’.

Table 1 Keywords (‘process words’) and phrases frequently used in assignment questions [ Tip: hold Ctrl and click a link to open it in a new tab. ( Hide tip ) ]   highlights some important process words and phrases that are frequently used in assignment questions. The table also indicates the style or approach expected for the piece of writing. While the explanations provided here are generally accepted, you should consider process words in the context of the question as a whole. If you are in doubt about the wording of a question, you should consult your tutor. Box 2 in the previous section has further useful tips on writing assignments.

Activity 3 An effective assignment

In your view, and based on what has been discussed so far in this session, what do you think an effective assignment (piece of academic writing such as an essay or dissertation) should demonstrate at postgraduate level?

Write down your thoughts. You may wish to use a mind map for this activity.

We don’t expect you to have noted everything down! You may have picked up on a few of these points however, and we will be exploring these further a little later on, but do take the time to reflect on the following at this point.

An effective assignment (piece of academic writing at postgraduate level) would:

• show that you understand the subject and have addressed the learning outcomes
• show you have answered the question being asked and interpreted this correctly
• meet the requirements of the assignment (the assignment brief) fully
• be focused and well-structured and written in a coherent manner, with sentences and paragraphs that link logically
• use different theories, examples, arguments and perspectives to create a discussion of the topic
• show that you have read more widely and engaged with the subject at a deeper level
• be referenced correctly in the style of your discipline
• use formal language with correct use of grammar, punctuation and spelling
• express your arguments clearly and concisely
• adopt a style and ‘academic voice’ (tone) that is suited to the task and target audience.

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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Reading, understanding and using theory

• Why do we read theory?
• Understanding theory
• When and how to read theory
• Using theory in your assignments
• Using theory in research
• References and further reading

Writing about theory

If possible, try to engage with relevant theory in some way whilst writing assignments. If you can at least show your awareness of major theorists, concepts or arguments – even in passing – it will demonstrate that you have an understanding of the wider academic context of the subject that you are writing about.

It might be that you are only able to describe a particular theory and not say much else. If it is very complicated, and you’re not confident with doing any more than this, then it’s still better to acknowledge the theory or theorist than to leave this out completely. However, if you are able to raise any points that evaluate or critique the theory then this will always impress your marker.

Critiquing or evaluating theory

It can feel very daunting to critique theory, but one way to do this is to think about how theory can reduce or constrict the ways we approach a topic, as well as helping us to see other points of view. Remember that theory works like a lens: when we use it to ‘look’ at a certain topic, it will bring particular elements of it into focus. However, by the same logic, individual theoretical perspectives can make us quite blinkered; it might be that we miss other perspectives that are important, or are forced to looks at things from a certain angle that prevents us from seeing the big picture.

This doesn’t mean that you can just straightforwardly complain that ‘Feminism is only interested in women’s perspectives’, for instance. But if you think that a Feminist theoretical perspective, when applied to your subject, is reductive or leads us to ignore other important points, then that might be a valid critique.

Comparing and contrasting theory

Another way to critically evaluate theoretical arguments or approaches is to put them side by side. It’s very difficult to critique ideas in isolation, but can sometimes be easier if you compare or contrast people’s perspectives on a subject. Thinking about the relative strengths or weaknesses of different arguments or explanations can also help your writing to be less descriptive. Consider the following two examples:

If you can acknowledge or describe a theory in your writing then that is better than nothing! But if you can, try to critique or evaluate it. Remember that no theoretical approach is perfect - it will give you one perspective on your topic. Therefore, there will likely be shortcomings with it. It might be easier for you to identify these if you compare different theories. Is one approach more rounded or complete than another? Does one provide a more suitable way in for you to consider your subject?

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• Work-Study Explained: How it Works (A Simple Guide)

The term “work-study” can seem self-explanatory: It’s a program designed to help people obtain employment while in college. Because so many students struggle to afford basic necessities, these part-time gigs are a helpful source of income. Simple enough, right?

Unfortunately, this straightforward concept can get complicated quickly . Dig into the details of work-study opportunities, and you’ll encounter a world of forms and intersecting bureaucracies. 

Which applications do you need to complete? Who runs the program, your school, or the government? Does a private student loan affect your eligibility?  If you qualify for work-study, are you guaranteed a gig? Does your paycheck go towards tuition, or directly into your pocket?

Every year, thousands of students grapple with the federal work-study system, navigating its demands successfully. With a little help, you can do the same, seizing a great opportunity to offset the costs of being in college. 

In this guide, we’ll take you through everything you need to know about the federal work-study program . We’ll explain how it’s funded and intended to function, showing how it actually helps students make ends meet. From there, we’ll get into the details of applying for work-study and actually getting a gig. Once you’re done with this article, you’ll be able to decide if work-study is right for you.

• Work-Study Basics: What It Is and What It Does

The Federal Work-Study program (sometimes called the FWS) is designed to help college students find part-time work and offset education expenses. The program is overseen by the U.S. Department of Education and represents one form of financial aid that the government makes available to students who need help with college expenses. 

While the program relies on federal funding, participating schools play a large role in allocating money to their students and administering work-study opportunities. Currently, about 3,400 colleges, universities, and professional schools participate in the work-study program to some extent. 

The administrative technicalities of work-study differ somewhat from school to school, and extensive regulations govern the program. But the fundamentals of the program can be summed up in relatively simple terms:

• The Department of Education provides money to schools participating in work-study programs. The amount given to each school reflects the financial needs of the student body and the number of work-study jobs available. 
• Schools determine which students should receive work-study as part of their broader financial aid package (which also includes loans and grants). If students are awarded work-study, the school designates the maximum amount that they can earn through the program.
• Students find designated work-study jobs on campus or in the local community. Once hired, students begin earning the amount of money specified in their work-study award. These jobs include a diverse set of roles, but they are all part-time positions that students can balance with their studies. 

This system may seem a lot like applying for any part-time job, and it is in many respects. But the work-study program is distinct from other employment opportunities because of the role of federal funding . For each work-study job, the federal government chips in a portion of the student’s payment , while the school pays the rest. In some cases, the government foots most (or all) of the bill. 

That means that schools have a big incentive to hire work-study students for a variety of positions across campus. They can help their students make ends meet through solid part-time gigs — and pay a lot less for the labor.

For students, the benefits are significant as well . Many work-study positions are interesting, fun, or fulfilling, and they’re designed to be flexible enough to accommodate your studies. Moreover, these jobs are designated for work-study students specifically, so the pool of competition is much smaller. 

Most importantly, work-study can be an excellent way to bolster your resume while earning the cash you need to afford student life. As you look towards life after graduation, who wouldn’t want less debt and more work experience?  

• Who Is Eligible for Work-study, and How Do I Apply?

Work-study opportunities are available to a wide array of students on many educational paths. Ultimately, schools decide which of their students will be offered work-study awards, and how much they’ll be able to earn. To be considered for work-study, you must meet these basic eligibility criteria. 

• You must be a current undergraduate, graduate, or professional student (students enrolled in vocational programs qualify as professional students).
• You must be enrolled part-time or full-time in a degree-seeking program.
• You must be accepted or currently enrolled in a school that participates in the Federal Work-Study Program.
• You must demonstrate a need for financial assistance in affording the costs of college and associated expenses.

To apply for financial aid, you must complete the Free Application for Federal Student Aid , better known as the FAFSA . This extensive document gives schools a sense of your financial resources. Once you complete it, you’ll need to send it to the schools to which you are applying (or the one you currently attend). 

To apply for work-study specifically, you’ll need to indicate your interest on the FAFSA. There is a specific question about work-study (question 31 at the time of this writing), and you’ll need to select “Yes” for schools to consider you for a work-study award. 

• If I’m Awarded Work-study, Am I Guaranteed a Job?

In effect, a work-study grant is really a green light to hunt for opportunities. Your school is committing to give you a certain amount of funds if you are hired for a work-study position. Unfortunately, that “if” can make all the difference.

A work-study grant does not guarantee that you will be hired for a work-study job. You will still need to find an appropriate opportunity, apply for it, and get hired (the next section covers this process specifically). Only once you’re hired will the work-study money start to flow in your direction. 

Don’t get discouraged, however. After all, schools want their students to utilize work-study awards: If work-study funds go unused, these institutions are leaving federal money on the table, and key jobs around campus go unfilled. Accordingly, colleges generally strive to help students find suitable opportunities, as we’ll discuss in more detail below.

It’s also worth noting that you are not obligated to accept a work-study position just because your school awards you work-study funding . If you find another form of employment that seems more promising, you can ignore the work-study option entirely. 

• How Do I Find and Apply for Work-study Jobs?

If you’re awarded work-study, your school will provide instructions pertaining to searching for and obtaining a suitable position. In some instances , this process will entail logging into a digital platform on which work-study jobs are listed. In many cases, you can apply for jobs directly within the platform. 

Other institutions post all available positions publicly, and it’s incumbent upon students to reach out about job openings. However they choose to do it, schools are in charge of specific job listings and assignments, not the federal government.

At most schools, this system is administered by a department intended to help students find employment (whether in a work-study capacity or not). It could be part of your school’s financial aid office, or nestled under another umbrella, such as the “career services department.” If you’re struggling to find a solid work-study job, reach out to them to see if they can aid in your search. 

Whatever the process at your school, it will be helpful to have an updated resume on hand . Even if a resume isn’t explicitly required, you’ll impress by providing one. 

• What Kinds of Work-study Jobs are Available?

Many students are surprised to learn just how numerous and varied work-study positions can be. Indeed, while each institution determines its own approach to work-study, most colleges offer a mix of service, administrative, research, and teaching roles. 

As one might expect, the qualifications necessary for work-study jobs can differ significantly . Some jobs require a great attitude, but no particular aptitude. Other demands specific skills and experience and, therefore, may be tied to a student’s past academic performance. 

Here are some popular and/or desirable work-study roles performed by students on their respective campuses. This list is by no means exhaustive, but it should provide a good sense of the opportunities available:

• Teaching and tutoring roles: Teaching assistants and tutors are often work-study recipients. They usually earn these positions by excelling in the subjects they teach to others.
• Research roles: From the lab to the library, many students earn money by helping faculty complete research projects. Again, these students earn their spots through academic excellence.
• Admissions and student life roles: Want to lead campus tours for prospective students? How about leading orientation groups for freshman or serving as a resident assistant (RA)? Work-study students often perform these gigs.
• Administrative roles: From managing paperwork and correspondence to handling incoming calls, every department needs a work-study student to handle business.
• Other services: Maybe you’re the tech-savvy type destined for I.T. services or an athlete who’d feel at home checking IDs at the gym. In many such roles, work-study students keep colleges running. 

If these options don’t speak to you, you can also look off-campus for work-study fulfillment . At most colleges, a portion of work-study funding is reserved for jobs in the local community, usually at public agencies or nonprofits dedicated to public service. 

• How Do I Get Paid for Work-study, and How Much Can I Make?

According to the Department of Education regulations , students employed in work-study jobs cannot make less than the federal minimum wage ($7.25 at the time of this writing). Additionally, in places where the state or local laws mandate a higher minimum wage, work-study pay must satisfy those laws. While all undergraduates are paid on an hourly basis, some graduate-level work-study positions may be salaried.

Schools are usually accountable for paying students and must do so at least once a month. If a student works in an off-campus position, however, they are paid by their employer instead. In most instances, students receive payment for their hours via check or direct deposit , though students can request that their earnings be debited directly to their student account. 

These earnings can be substantial: In one recent study , students earned an average of $2,649 per year in their work-study jobs. However, you can’t earn more than the total work-study grant awarded by your school.  

You should keep this in mind as you search for a work-study role. You’ll need to find a job in which the hours and hourly rate won’t surpass your total award. If you can earn a maximum of $1,500 for the academic year, for example, you might look for a gig requiring just a few hours per week. 

• Do I Have to Apply for Work-study Again Every Year?

Federal work-study opportunities are part of the broader range of student aid provided by the U.S. government. To stay eligible for these benefits, you must complete the FAFSA every year and submit it to your school. Thankfully, the FAFSA website doesn’t make you start from scratch: With the “Renewal” option, much of the info from the year before carries over.

Your school will then review your financial circumstances, determining whether you still qualify for work-study. Because funding varies annually, you may not be offered the same work-study grant as you were the year before, even if your financial needs haven’t changed. Accordingly, experts recommend submitting the FAFSA early to maximize your chances of a work-study grant. 

Once granted work-study, you’ll need to navigate your school’s process for obtaining a specific position. If you love your work-study position and want to keep it next year, let your supervisor know. They may be able to coordinate with you and save the position for you.

• Are There Other Kinds of Work-study Programs?

So far, we’ve discussed federal work-study programs, which utilize funds from the U.S. Department of Education. But certain students may benefit from a slightly different category of employment opportunity: state work-study programs.  

These programs function much like federal work-study, but they’re funded by state legislatures instead. Eligibility criteria and funding levels differ, and some states don’t have their own work-study programs at all. 

However, some basic rules generally apply: These opportunities are usually open only to residents attending schools in their home states. Both public and private institutions can participate in state work-study programs, and these institutions generally determine which students will be offered work-study as part of their financial aid packages. 

In short, the federal government may not be your only shot at a work-study opportunity. Research your own state’s approach , because you may need to complete an additional application to be eligible for state work-study positions. 

• Offsetting Expenses: As a Student — and Beyond

After reading through this guide, you should have a basic understanding of how work-study operates. More importantly, we hope you’ve gained some sense of whether a work-study position might be advantageous to you.  

As we’ve noted throughout this article, work-study jobs differ tremendously, compensating at different levels, and demanding various skills. But they share some key advantages for students, such as a limited pool of eligible applicants and the flexibility to accommodate class schedules. If you hope to depart college with a degree and some valuable work experience, a work-study position may be the perfect solution.

That being said, work-study roles are hardly the only form of viable employment available to students . If you’re ineligible for work-study or can’t find a position that suits your preferences, there are plenty of other part-time jobs to consider. Plus, as the gig economy presents new opportunities, you have more ways than ever to make ends meet.

Even once you graduate, you may need to get creative about managing expenses while launching your career. For many young professionals, it can be tough to pay down student loans on an entry-level salary. But whether you’re still in school or repaying your loans right now, you don’t have to tackle these issues alone. At CollegeFinance.com , we’ve got the insights and straightforward advice you need to make smart money decisions — before, during, or after college.

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