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• 10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project

10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project

Published on October 30, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on October 19, 2023.

The research question is one of the most important parts of your research paper , thesis or dissertation . It’s important to spend some time assessing and refining your question before you get started.

The exact form of your question will depend on a few things, such as the length of your project, the type of research you’re conducting, the topic , and the research problem . However, all research questions should be focused, specific, and relevant to a timely social or scholarly issue.

Once you’ve read our guide on how to write a research question , you can use these examples to craft your own.

Note that the design of your research question can depend on what method you are pursuing. Here are a few options for qualitative, quantitative, and statistical research questions.

Other interesting articles

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

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Creating a Good Research Question

• Advice & Growth
• Process in Practice

Successful translation of research begins with a strong question. How do you get started? How do good research questions evolve? And where do you find inspiration to generate good questions in the first place?  It’s helpful to understand existing frameworks, guidelines, and standards, as well as hear from researchers who utilize these strategies in their own work.

In the fall and winter of 2020, Naomi Fisher, MD, conducted 10 interviews with clinical and translational researchers at Harvard University and affiliated academic healthcare centers, with the purpose of capturing their experiences developing good research questions. The researchers featured in this project represent various specialties, drawn from every stage of their careers. Below you will find clips from their interviews and additional resources that highlight how to get started, as well as helpful frameworks and factors to consider. Additionally, visit the Advice & Growth section to hear candid advice and explore the Process in Practice section to hear how researchers have applied these recommendations to their published research.

• Naomi Fisher, MD , is associate professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School (HMS), and clinical staff at Brigham and Women’s Hospital (BWH). Fisher is founder and director of Hypertension Services and the Hypertension Specialty Clinic at the BWH, where she is a renowned endocrinologist. She serves as a faculty director for communication-related Boundary-Crossing Skills for Research Careers webinar sessions and the Writing and Communication Center .
• Christopher Gibbons, MD , is associate professor of neurology at HMS, and clinical staff at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC) and Joslin Diabetes Center. Gibbons’ research focus is on peripheral and autonomic neuropathies.
• Clare Tempany-Afdhal, MD , is professor of radiology at HMS and the Ferenc Jolesz Chair of Research, Radiology at BWH. Her major areas of research are MR imaging of the pelvis and image- guided therapy.
• David Sykes, MD, PhD , is assistant professor of medicine at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH), he is also principal investigator at the Sykes Lab at MGH. His special interest area is rare hematologic conditions.
• Elliot Israel, MD , is professor of medicine at HMS, director of the Respiratory Therapy Department, the director of clinical research in the Pulmonary and Critical Care Medical Division and associate physician at BWH. Israel’s research interests include therapeutic interventions to alter asthmatic airway hyperactivity and the role of arachidonic acid metabolites in airway narrowing.
• Jonathan Williams, MD, MMSc , is assistant professor of medicine at HMS, and associate physician at BWH. He focuses on endocrinology, specifically unravelling the intricate relationship between genetics and environment with respect to susceptibility to cardiometabolic disease.
• Junichi Tokuda, PhD , is associate professor of radiology at HMS, and is a research scientist at the Department of Radiology, BWH. Tokuda is particularly interested in technologies to support image-guided “closed-loop” interventions. He also serves as a principal investigator leading several projects funded by the National Institutes of Health and industry.
• Osama Rahma, MD , is assistant professor of medicine at HMS and clinical staff member in medical oncology at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute (DFCI). Rhama is currently a principal investigator at the Center for Immuno-Oncology and Gastroenterology Cancer Center at DFCI. His research focus is on drug development of combinational immune therapeutics.
• Sharmila Dorbala, MD, MPH , is professor of radiology at HMS and clinical staff at BWH in cardiovascular medicine and radiology. She is also the president of the American Society of Nuclear Medicine. Dorbala’s specialty is using nuclear medicine for cardiovascular discoveries.
• Subha Ramani, PhD, MBBS, MMed , is associate professor of medicine at HMS, as well as associate physician in the Division of General Internal Medicine and Primary Care at BWH. Ramani’s scholarly interests focus on innovative approaches to teaching, learning and assessment of clinical trainees, faculty development in teaching, and qualitative research methods in medical education.
• Ursula Kaiser, MD , is professor at HMS and chief of the Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, and senior physician at BWH. Kaiser’s research focuses on understanding the molecular mechanisms by which pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone regulates the expression of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone genes.

Insights on Creating a Good Research Question

Play Junichi Tokuda video

Play Ursula Kaiser video

Start Successfully: Build the Foundation of a Good Research Question

Start Successfully Resources

Ideation in Device Development: Finding Clinical Need Josh Tolkoff, MS A lecture explaining the critical importance of identifying a compelling clinical need before embarking on a research project. Play Ideation in Device Development video .

Radical Innovation Jeff Karp, PhD This ThinkResearch podcast episode focuses on one researcher’s approach using radical simplicity to break down big problems and questions. Play Radical Innovation .

Using Healthcare Data: How can Researchers Come up with Interesting Questions? Anupam Jena, MD, PhD Another ThinkResearch podcast episode addresses how to discover good research questions by using a backward design approach which involves analyzing big data and allowing the research question to unfold from findings. Play Using Healthcare Data .

Important Factors: Consider Feasibility and Novelty

Refining Your Research Question 

Play video of Clare Tempany-Afdhal

Play Elliott Israel video

Frameworks and Structure: Evaluate Research Questions Using Tools and Techniques

Frameworks and Structure Resources

Designing Clinical Research Hulley et al. A comprehensive and practical guide to clinical research, including the FINER framework for evaluating research questions. Learn more about the book .

Translational Medicine Library Guide Queens University Library An introduction to popular frameworks for research questions, including FINER and PICO. Review translational medicine guide .

Asking a Good T3/T4 Question  Niteesh K. Choudhry, MD, PhD This video explains the PICO framework in practice as participants in a workshop propose research questions that compare interventions. Play Asking a Good T3/T4 Question video

Introduction to Designing & Conducting Mixed Methods Research An online course that provides a deeper dive into mixed methods’ research questions and methodologies. Learn more about the course

Network and Support: Find the Collaborators and Stakeholders to Help Evaluate Research Questions

Network & Support Resource

Bench-to-bedside, Bedside-to-bench Christopher Gibbons, MD In this lecture, Gibbons shares his experience of bringing research from bench to bedside, and from bedside to bench. His talk highlights the formation and evolution of research questions based on clinical need. Play Bench-to-bedside. 

How to Write a Research Question: Types and Examples 

The first step in any research project is framing the research question. It can be considered the core of any systematic investigation as the research outcomes are tied to asking the right questions. Thus, this primary interrogation point sets the pace for your research as it helps collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work.   

Typically, the research question guides the stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. Depending on the use of quantifiable or quantitative data, research questions are broadly categorized into quantitative or qualitative research questions. Both types of research questions can be used independently or together, considering the overall focus and objectives of your research.  

What is a research question?

A research question is a clear, focused, concise, and arguable question on which your research and writing are centered. 1 It states various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the problem the study addresses. These questions also set the boundaries of the study, ensuring cohesion. 

Designing the research question is a dynamic process where the researcher can change or refine the research question as they review related literature and develop a framework for the study. Depending on the scale of your research, the study can include single or multiple research questions. 

A good research question has the following features: 

• It is relevant to the chosen field of study. 
• The question posed is arguable and open for debate, requiring synthesizing and analysis of ideas. 
• It is focused and concisely framed. 
• A feasible solution is possible within the given practical constraint and timeframe. 

A poorly formulated research question poses several risks. 1   

• Researchers can adopt an erroneous design. 
• It can create confusion and hinder the thought process, including developing a clear protocol.  
• It can jeopardize publication efforts.  
• It causes difficulty in determining the relevance of the study findings.  
• It causes difficulty in whether the study fulfils the inclusion criteria for systematic review and meta-analysis. This creates challenges in determining whether additional studies or data collection is needed to answer the question.  
• Readers may fail to understand the objective of the study. This reduces the likelihood of the study being cited by others. 

Now that you know “What is a research question?”, let’s look at the different types of research questions. 

Types of research questions

Depending on the type of research to be done, research questions can be classified broadly into quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods studies. Knowing the type of research helps determine the best type of research question that reflects the direction and epistemological underpinnings of your research. 

The structure and wording of quantitative 2 and qualitative research 3 questions differ significantly. The quantitative study looks at causal relationships, whereas the qualitative study aims at exploring a phenomenon. 

• Quantitative research questions:  
• Seeks to investigate social, familial, or educational experiences or processes in a particular context and/or location.  
• Answers ‘how,’ ‘what,’ or ‘why’ questions. 
• Investigates connections, relations, or comparisons between independent and dependent variables. 

Quantitative research questions can be further categorized into descriptive, comparative, and relationship, as explained in the Table below. 

• Qualitative research questions  

Qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional, and more flexible. It concerns broad areas of research or more specific areas of study to discover, explain, or explore a phenomenon. These are further classified as follows: 

• Mixed-methods studies  

Mixed-methods studies use both quantitative and qualitative research questions to answer your research question. Mixed methods provide a complete picture than standalone quantitative or qualitative research, as it integrates the benefits of both methods. Mixed methods research is often used in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal research, especially in the behavioral, health, and social science fields. 

What makes a good research question

A good research question should be clear and focused to guide your research. It should synthesize multiple sources to present your unique argument, and should ideally be something that you are interested in. But avoid questions that can be answered in a few factual statements. The following are the main attributes of a good research question. 

• Specific: The research question should not be a fishing expedition performed in the hopes that some new information will be found that will benefit the researcher. The central research question should work with your research problem to keep your work focused. If using multiple questions, they should all tie back to the central aim. 
• Measurable: The research question must be answerable using quantitative and/or qualitative data or from scholarly sources to develop your research question. If such data is impossible to access, it is better to rethink your question. 
• Attainable: Ensure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific. 
• You have the expertise 
• You have the equipment and resources 
• Realistic: Developing your research question should be based on initial reading about your topic. It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or discipline. 
• Based on some sort of rational physics 
• Can be done in a reasonable time frame 
• Timely: The research question should contribute to an existing and current debate in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can later build on. 
• Novel 
• Based on current technologies. 
• Important to answer current problems or concerns. 
• Lead to new directions. 
• Important: Your question should have some aspect of originality. Incremental research is as important as exploring disruptive technologies. For example, you can focus on a specific location or explore a new angle. 
• Meaningful whether the answer is “Yes” or “No.” Closed-ended, yes/no questions are too simple to work as good research questions. Such questions do not provide enough scope for robust investigation and discussion. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, and original interpretation and argumentation before providing an answer. 

Steps for developing a good research question

The importance of research questions cannot be understated. When drafting a research question, use the following frameworks to guide the components of your question to ease the process. 4  

• Determine the requirements: Before constructing a good research question, set your research requirements. What is the purpose? Is it descriptive, comparative, or explorative research? Determining the research aim will help you choose the most appropriate topic and word your question appropriately. 
• Select a broad research topic: Identify a broader subject area of interest that requires investigation. Techniques such as brainstorming or concept mapping can help identify relevant connections and themes within a broad research topic. For example, how to learn and help students learn. 
• Perform preliminary investigation: Preliminary research is needed to obtain up-to-date and relevant knowledge on your topic. It also helps identify issues currently being discussed from which information gaps can be identified. 
• Narrow your focus: Narrow the scope and focus of your research to a specific niche. This involves focusing on gaps in existing knowledge or recent literature or extending or complementing the findings of existing literature. Another approach involves constructing strong research questions that challenge your views or knowledge of the area of study (Example: Is learning consistent with the existing learning theory and research). 
• Identify the research problem: Once the research question has been framed, one should evaluate it. This is to realize the importance of the research questions and if there is a need for more revising (Example: How do your beliefs on learning theory and research impact your instructional practices). 

How to write a research question

Those struggling to understand how to write a research question, these simple steps can help you simplify the process of writing a research question. 

Sample Research Questions

The following are some bad and good research question examples 

• Example 1 

• Example 2 

References:  

• Thabane, L., Thomas, T., Ye, C., & Paul, J. (2009). Posing the research question: not so simple.  Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d’anesthésie ,  56 (1), 71-79. 
• Rutberg, S., & Bouikidis, C. D. (2018). Focusing on the fundamentals: A simplistic differentiation between qualitative and quantitative research.  Nephrology Nursing Journal ,  45 (2), 209-213. 
• Kyngäs, H. (2020). Qualitative research and content analysis.  The application of content analysis in nursing science research , 3-11. 
• Mattick, K., Johnston, J., & de la Croix, A. (2018). How to… write a good research question.  The clinical teacher ,  15 (2), 104-108. 
• Fandino, W. (2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls.  Indian Journal of Anaesthesia ,  63 (8), 611. 
• Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions.  ACP journal club ,  123 (3), A12-A13 

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5 Steps to Creating Better Research Questions

• 5-minute read
• 14th December 2021

Research questions are central to scientific inquiry . Well-formulated research questions identify the specific issues your study will address and help you plan your investigation.

In this post, we’ll show you how to formulate strong research questions in five steps:

• Start with a broad topic that you’re interested in.
• Familiarize yourself with current work in your chosen area.
• Identify the specific issue you want to focus on.
• Develop a suitably complex question.
• Refine your question by examining each word.

Read on to learn more about each of these points.

1. Choose a Subject That You Are Genuinely Curious About

You’ll spend a lot of time researching your chosen topic. That’s why you should choose a topic that interests you and that you’d like to learn about. Also, you should choose a topic that’s exciting and relevant to your audience, especially if you hope to have your work published .

Instead of choosing a completely new area of study, choose a topic that you already know a little bit about. If you’ve read even just a few articles about something, that’s better than tackling something completely new.

Your topic should be broad but not too broad. For example, if you choose “mental health,” you need to narrow it down right away so that step 2 is doable. A more realistic broad topic would be “mental health in teenagers.” You won’t have to complete as much research, but you’ll still have plenty of room to find a niche topic within the larger area. 

2. Carry Out Preliminary Research

The next step is to research your chosen topic. By looking at recent journal articles and review papers , you can find out what other researchers are exploring and what questions arise from existing studies.

The aim here is to identify possible subtopics and/or find gaps in current research. So, as you read, jot down questions you’d like to answer and areas you’d like to explore further.

3. Focus on a Precise Issue Within the Broader Topic

Now that you’ve familiarized yourself with the current state of research on your chosen topic, you can focus on a niche area.

In our example above, “mental health in teenagers,” this could mean focusing on a specific group (e.g., 7th–9 th -grade students). We could look at a single area of mental health (e.g., anxiety) or a specific time or place.

Maybe in your initial reading, you discovered a gap in existing research that could form the basis of your research question, or you may be interested in exploring the relationship between different variables (e.g., gender and anxiety level).

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Another idea is to consider how current events might affect the broader topic. For example, you might choose to study the impact of the pandemic on the mental wellbeing of 11–16-year-old children.

4. Create an Interesting, Researchable Question

The next step is to turn your idea into a well-balanced question. The best research questions will tick all the boxes below:

●  Original: This simply means that your question shouldn’t have already been answered. It doesn’t mean you must have an idea that nobody has come up with yet, but your approach should bring new insight. This could mean that you focus on a specific age group or geographic area.

●  Focused: Your question should identify a single problem that you want your research to address.

●  Complex: If someone could answer your question by searching the Internet for five minutes, it’s not complex enough. Research questions should ask “how” and “why” rather than “is” or “does.” In other words, they shouldn’t be easily answered with “yes” or “no.” Rather, answering the question means bringing together ideas and data from different sources.

●  Achievable: Even if your question is complex enough to turn into a research paper, you still need to keep in mind constraints like word count, time frame, availability of resources, and your ability to complete the necessary research.

●  Debatable: When answering your research question, keep in mind that you don’t want to reach a definitive conclusion. A strong question leaves room for further discussion.

5. Make Every Word Count

The final step is to formulate the precise wording of your question. You may need to follow a defined format (e.g., PICO or PEO ), or you can phrase the question in your own way.

In either case, your research question must clearly state what the paper is about. It should be as concise as possible but not open to misinterpretation. This includes defining ambiguous terms (e.g., “young people”) and detailing how you’ll evaluate any relevant variables.

Hopefully, you can now formulate effective research questions. Don’t forget to have your paper proofread by an expert when you’re done. At Proofed, we’ll check your writing for errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation and give you feedback on clarity and conciseness. You can even try our proofreading service for free .

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Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

How to Craft a Strong Research Question (With Research Question Examples)

A sound and effective research question is a key element that must be identified and pinned down before researchers can even begin their research study or work. A strong research question lays the foundation for your entire study, guiding your investigation and shaping your findings. Hence, it is critical that researchers spend considerable time assessing and refining the research question based on in-depth reading and comprehensive literature review. In this article, we will discuss how to write a strong research question and provide you with some good examples of research questions across various disciplines.

Table of Contents

The importance of a research question

A research question plays a crucial role in driving scientific inquiry, setting the direction and purpose of your study, and guiding your entire research process. By formulating a clear and focused research question, you lay the foundation for your investigation, ensuring that your research remains on track and aligned with your objectives so you can make meaningful contribution to the existing body of knowledge. A well-crafted research question also helps you define the scope of your study and identify the appropriate methodologies and data collection techniques to employ.

Key components of a strong research question

A good research question possesses several key components that contribute to the quality and impact of your study. Apart from providing a clear framework to generate meaningful results, a well-defined research question allows other researchers to understand the purpose and significance of your work. So, when working on your research question, incorporate the following elements:

• Specificity : A strong research question should be specific about the main focus of your study, enabling you to gather precise data and draw accurate conclusions. It clearly defines the variables, participants, and context involved, leaving no room for ambiguity.
• Clarity : A good research question is clear and easily understood, so articulate the purpose and intent of your study concisely without being generic or vague. Ensuring clarity in your research question helps both you and your readers grasp the research objective.
• Feasibility : While crafting a research question, consider the practicality of conducting the research and availability of necessary data or access to participants. Think whether your study is realistic and achievable within the constraints of time, resources, and ethical considerations.

How to craft a well-defined research question

A first step that will help save time and effort is knowing what your aims are and thinking about a few problem statements on the area or aspect one wants to study or do research on. Contemplating these statements as one undertakes more progressive reading can help the researcher in reassessing and fine-tuning the research question. This can be done over time as they read and learn more about the research topic, along with a broad literature review and parallel discussions with peer researchers and supervisors. In some cases, a researcher can have more than one research question if the research being undertaken is a PhD thesis or dissertation, but try not to cover multiple concerns on a topic.

A strong research question must be researchable, original, complex, and relevant. Here are five simple steps that can make the entire process easier.

• Identify a broad topic from your areas of interest, something that is relevant, and you are passionate about since you’ll be spending a lot of time conducting your research.
• Do a thorough literature review to weed out potential gaps in research and stay updated on what’s currently being done in your chosen topic and subject area.
• Shortlist possible research questions based on the research gaps or see how you can build on or refute previously published ideas and concepts.
• Assess your chosen research question using the FINER criteria that helps you evaluate whether the research is Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant. 1
• Formulate the final research question, while ensuring it is clear, well-written, and addresses all the key elements of a strong research question.

Examples of research questions

Remember to adapt your research question to suit your purpose, whether it’s exploratory, descriptive, comparative, experimental, qualitative, or quantitative. Embrace the iterative nature of the research process, continually evaluating and refining your question as you progress. Here are some good examples of research questions across various disciplines.

Exploratory research question examples

• How does social media impact interpersonal relationships among teenagers?
• What are the potential benefits of incorporating mindfulness practices in the workplace?

Descriptive research question examples

• What factors influence customer loyalty in the e-commerce industry?
• Is there a relationship between socioeconomic status and academic performance among elementary school students?

Comparative research question examples

• How does the effectiveness of traditional teaching methods compare to online learning platforms in mathematics education?
• What is the impact of different healthcare policies on patient outcomes in various countries?

Experimental research question examples

• What are the effects of a new drug on reducing symptoms of a specific medical condition?
• Does a dietary intervention have an impact on weight loss among individuals with obesity?

Qualitative research question examples

• What are the lived experiences of immigrants adapting to a new culture?
• What factors influence job satisfaction among healthcare professionals?

Quantitative research question examples

• Is there a relationship between sleep duration and academic performance among college students?
• How effective is a specific intervention in reducing anxiety levels among individuals with phobias?

With these simple guidelines and inspiring examples of research questions, you are equipped to embark on your research journey with confidence and purpose. Here’s wishing you all the best for your future endeavors!

References:

• How to write a research question: Steps and examples. Indeed Career Guide. Available online at https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-research-questions

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Research Question 101 📖

Everything you need to know to write a high-quality research question

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | October 2023

If you’ve landed on this page, you’re probably asking yourself, “ What is a research question? ”. Well, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll explain what a research question is , how it’s differen t from a research aim, and how to craft a high-quality research question that sets you up for success.

Research Question 101

What is a research question.

• Research questions vs research aims
• The 4 types of research questions
• How to write a research question
• Frequently asked questions
• Examples of research questions

As the name suggests, the research question is the core question (or set of questions) that your study will (attempt to) answer .

In many ways, a research question is akin to a target in archery . Without a clear target, you won’t know where to concentrate your efforts and focus. Essentially, your research question acts as the guiding light throughout your project and informs every choice you make along the way.

Let’s look at some examples:

What impact does social media usage have on the mental health of teenagers in New York?

How does the introduction of a minimum wage affect employment levels in small businesses in outer London?

How does the portrayal of women in 19th-century American literature reflect the societal attitudes of the time?

What are the long-term effects of intermittent fasting on heart health in adults?

As you can see in these examples, research questions are clear, specific questions that can be feasibly answered within a study. These are important attributes and we’ll discuss each of them in more detail a little later . If you’d like to see more examples of research questions, you can find our RQ mega-list here .

Research Questions vs Research Aims

At this point, you might be asking yourself, “ How is a research question different from a research aim? ”. Within any given study, the research aim and research question (or questions) are tightly intertwined , but they are separate things . Let’s unpack that a little.

A research aim is typically broader in nature and outlines what you hope to achieve with your research. It doesn’t ask a specific question but rather gives a summary of what you intend to explore.

The research question, on the other hand, is much more focused . It’s the specific query you’re setting out to answer. It narrows down the research aim into a detailed, researchable question that will guide your study’s methods and analysis.

Let’s look at an example:

Research Aim: To explore the effects of climate change on marine life in Southern Africa.

Research Question: How does ocean acidification caused by climate change affect the reproduction rates of coral reefs?

As you can see, the research aim gives you a general focus , while the research question details exactly what you want to find out.

Need a helping hand?

Types of research questions

Now that we’ve defined what a research question is, let’s look at the different types of research questions that you might come across. Broadly speaking, there are (at least) four different types of research questions – descriptive , comparative , relational , and explanatory . 

Descriptive questions ask what is happening. In other words, they seek to describe a phenomena or situation . An example of a descriptive research question could be something like “What types of exercise do high-performing UK executives engage in?”. This would likely be a bit too basic to form an interesting study, but as you can see, the research question is just focused on the what – in other words, it just describes the situation.

Comparative research questions , on the other hand, look to understand the way in which two or more things differ , or how they’re similar. An example of a comparative research question might be something like “How do exercise preferences vary between middle-aged men across three American cities?”. As you can see, this question seeks to compare the differences (or similarities) in behaviour between different groups.

Next up, we’ve got exploratory research questions , which ask why or how is something happening. While the other types of questions we looked at focused on the what, exploratory research questions are interested in the why and how . As an example, an exploratory research question might ask something like “Why have bee populations declined in Germany over the last 5 years?”. As you can, this question is aimed squarely at the why, rather than the what.

Last but not least, we have relational research questions . As the name suggests, these types of research questions seek to explore the relationships between variables . Here, an example could be something like “What is the relationship between X and Y” or “Does A have an impact on B”. As you can see, these types of research questions are interested in understanding how constructs or variables are connected , and perhaps, whether one thing causes another.

Of course, depending on how fine-grained you want to get, you can argue that there are many more types of research questions , but these four categories give you a broad idea of the different flavours that exist out there. It’s also worth pointing out that a research question doesn’t need to fit perfectly into one category – in many cases, a research question might overlap into more than just one category and that’s okay.

The key takeaway here is that research questions can take many different forms , and it’s useful to understand the nature of your research question so that you can align your research methodology accordingly.

How To Write A Research Question

As we alluded earlier, a well-crafted research question needs to possess very specific attributes, including focus , clarity and feasibility . But that’s not all – a rock-solid research question also needs to be rooted and aligned . Let’s look at each of these.

A strong research question typically has a single focus. So, don’t try to cram multiple questions into one research question; rather split them up into separate questions (or even subquestions), each with their own specific focus. As a rule of thumb, narrow beats broad when it comes to research questions.

Clear and specific

A good research question is clear and specific, not vague and broad. State clearly exactly what you want to find out so that any reader can quickly understand what you’re looking to achieve with your study. Along the same vein, try to avoid using bulky language and jargon – aim for clarity.

Unfortunately, even a super tantalising and thought-provoking research question has little value if you cannot feasibly answer it. So, think about the methodological implications of your research question while you’re crafting it. Most importantly, make sure that you know exactly what data you’ll need (primary or secondary) and how you’ll analyse that data.

A good research question (and a research topic, more broadly) should be rooted in a clear research gap and research problem . Without a well-defined research gap, you risk wasting your effort pursuing a question that’s already been adequately answered (and agreed upon) by the research community. A well-argued research gap lays at the heart of a valuable study, so make sure you have your gap clearly articulated and that your research question directly links to it.

As we mentioned earlier, your research aim and research question are (or at least, should be) tightly linked. So, make sure that your research question (or set of questions) aligns with your research aim . If not, you’ll need to revise one of the two to achieve this.

FAQ: Research Questions

Research question faqs, how many research questions should i have, what should i avoid when writing a research question, can a research question be a statement.

Typically, a research question is phrased as a question, not a statement. A question clearly indicates what you’re setting out to discover.

Can a research question be too broad or too narrow?

Yes. A question that’s too broad makes your research unfocused, while a question that’s too narrow limits the scope of your study.

Here’s an example of a research question that’s too broad:

“Why is mental health important?”

Conversely, here’s an example of a research question that’s likely too narrow:

“What is the impact of sleep deprivation on the exam scores of 19-year-old males in London studying maths at The Open University?”

Can I change my research question during the research process?

How do i know if my research question is good.

A good research question is focused, specific, practical, rooted in a research gap, and aligned with the research aim. If your question meets these criteria, it’s likely a strong question.

Is a research question similar to a hypothesis?

Not quite. A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts an outcome, while a research question is a query that you’re trying to answer through your study. Naturally, there can be linkages between a study’s research questions and hypothesis, but they serve different functions.

How are research questions and research objectives related?

The research question is a focused and specific query that your study aims to answer. It’s the central issue you’re investigating. The research objective, on the other hand, outlines the steps you’ll take to answer your research question. Research objectives are often more action-oriented and can be broken down into smaller tasks that guide your research process. In a sense, they’re something of a roadmap that helps you answer your research question.

Need some inspiration?

If you’d like to see more examples of research questions, check out our research question mega list here .  Alternatively, if you’d like 1-on-1 help developing a high-quality research question, consider our private coaching service .

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This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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How to Write a Research Question

Last Updated: April 20, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Danielle Blinka, MA, MPA . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 76,271 times.

A research question helps you narrow your research and write a clear, arguable thesis. Your research question needs to be concise, arguable, and focused on your particular topic. Before writing your research question, narrow down your topic and brainstorm possible questions. Then, select the best question and craft it into a good research question. As another option, choose the type of research question that fits your purpose and format your question to fit that style.

Research Questions

Narrowing Your Topic

• When you decide on a research question for your work, it's best to run it by your instructor.

• For instance, great topics for a high school paper might include family dynamics during the civil war, body image among teens, or type 2 diabetes.
• If you're doing a college-level project, a good topic might be the environment's influence on human development, cultural influences on a poet's work, or the ethics of technological advancements.
• In some cases, your topic may be provided to you, such as when you're writing a paper for a class. You can still use the same process for narrowing your topic and selecting a research question.

• The purpose of this research is to learn more, not gather sources. That means it's okay to check sites like Wikipedia, which aren't typically considered reliable sources.

• What, why, and how questions make the best research questions.
• Write down the first questions that come to mind without worrying if they'll make a good research question. You can always revise your question later to make it better.
• For example, let's say you chose body image among teens as your topic. You might write questions like, “How does social media impact body image?” “How does the amount of time spent on Instagram relate to a teen's sense of self-worth?” “Are peers or family members a bigger influence on body image in teens?” and “What factors make teens more likely to have a poor body image?”
• Similarly, you might write a college paper about the ethics of technological advancements. Questions you might ask include, "How is social media altering the culture of society?" "How does screen time alter the brain's neural processing?" and "How might current advancements affect society over the next 25 years?"

Tip: If you find yourself drawn to a particular question, don't keep brainstorming potential questions. Instead, start evaluating the question that interests you to figure out if it might be right for your research project.

Crafting an Effective Research Question

• As an example, the question "What jobs will humans lose to robots over the next 50 years?" may be too difficult to answer. Instead, you might ask, "How has the field of robotics changed the manufacturing industry?"

Tip: When choosing your question, consider your skill level and purpose. If you're doing this project for a class, how will it be graded? What are your instructor's expectations? Additionally, make sure your question fits the scope of the assignment.

• Is this question clear enough to guide my research?
• Is this question specific?
• Does this question allow for research and analysis?
• Can I answer this question based on current research? If so, could I easily find the answer by looking at basic reference works (which means the question is too easy to answer), or will it require more in-depth analysis using multiple sources?
• Has this question already been answered?
• Can I answer the question in an objective manner, based on evidence?
• Can I answer this question in the time I have allotted for this project?

• “What factors cause teens to have poor body image?” is better stated “What environmental and social factors contribute to poor body image in teens?”
• “How does T.S. Elliot use symbolism?” becomes “Why does T.S. Elliot use tea as a symbol in 'The Lovesong of J. Alfred Prufrock?'”
• “What happened to family dynamics during the civil war?” can be narrowed to “How did the fracturing of families during the civil war affect society?”
• "How does screen time alter the brain's neural processing?" might be narrowed to "How does spending 2 hours a day on social media impact neural processing in preteens?"

• For instance, questions like, "What season of the year do parrots typically breed?" or "What era did William Wordsworth write?" are not great research questions because they are too easy to answer.
• The research question “Are peers or family members a bigger influence on body image in teens?” is arguable because you could make a case for either peers or family members having a greater influence on teenagers. Similarly, “Why does T.S. Elliot use tea as a symbol in 'The Lovesong of J. Alfred Prufrock?'” is arguable because different critics may have varying interpretations of the poem.
• As another example, "How does spending 2 hours a day on social media impact neural processing in preteens?" is debatable because you can focus on different effects. It's possible to interpret these effects differently, depending on your stance on the issue.

Tip: Research your question and see what comes up. If you feel like the search results effectively cover what you want to say, then you might want to pick a different question.

Choosing a Type of Research Question

• "What environmental factors cause birds to move nests?"
• "What changes to the habitat can encourage parrots to mate?"
• "What political conditions contributed to the start of the War of 1812?"
• "What symbols does T.S. Elliot use in 'The Lovesong of J. Alfred Prufrock?'”

• "If two different plants are both provided the same amount of sunlight and fertilizer, will they grow at the same rate?"
• "If two identical solutions are exposed to different quantities of an element, will they show equal or different reactions?"
• "If two test subjects are asked to perform a task alone and then together, how will collaboration affect their outcome?"

• "Will the introduction of a new plant to a biodome affect the ecosystem?"
• "Does changing team assignments cause workers to lose morale?"
• "Do metered ramps on highways change driver behavior?"

Community Q&A

• Make sure your research question is narrow enough to write a specific paper. If it's too broad, your paper will be too general and vague to make a clear point. A narrow research question will help you write a focused paper. Thanks Helpful 2 Not Helpful 0
• A clear, specific research question will help you create a good thesis for your paper. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 0
• If you're doing your research as part of a class assignment, talk to your instructor if you're having trouble writing your research question. Tell them what you're considering and ask them for guidance. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://libraries.indiana.edu/sites/default/files/Develop_a_Research_Question.pdf
• ↑ https://www.pewresearch.org/our-methods/u-s-surveys/writing-survey-questions/
• ↑ https://cirt.gcu.edu/research/develop/tutorials/question
• ↑ https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/how-to-write-a-research-question

About this article

To write a research question, start by writing a list of open-ended questions that relate to the topic you're researching. For example, if your topic was social media, your questions might look something like "How does social media impact body image?" or "What impact does social media have on our culture?" Next, choose the question that interests you the most, and try to make it as specific as possible. Also, make sure it can't be easily answered since you want a topic that you can thoroughly examine. For more advice, like how to choose a topic to research, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Writing Studio

Formulating your research question (rq).

In an effort to make our handouts more accessible, we have begun converting our PDF handouts to web pages. Download this page as a PDF: Formulating Your Research Question Return to Writing Studio Handouts

In a research paper, the emphasis is on generating a unique question and then synthesizing diverse sources into a coherent essay that supports your argument about the topic. In other words, you integrate information from publications with your own thoughts in order to formulate an argument. Your topic is your starting place: from here, you will develop an engaging research question. Merely presenting a topic in the form of a question does not transform it into a good research question.

Research Topic Versus Research Question Examples

1. broad topic versus narrow question, 1a. broad topic.

“What forces affect race relations in America?”

1b. NARROWER QUESTION

“How do corporate hiring practices affect race relations in Nashville?”

The question “What is the percentage of racial minorities holding management positions in corporate offices in Nashville?” is much too specific and would yield, at best, a statistic that could become part of a larger argument.

2. Neutral Topic Versus Argumentative Question

2a. neutral topic.

“How does KFC market its low-fat food offerings?”

2b. Argumentative question

“Does KFC put more money into marketing its high-fat food offerings than its lower-fat ones?”

The latter question is somewhat better, since it may lead you to take a stance or formulate an argument about consumer awareness or benefit.

3. Objective Topic Versus Subjective Question

Objective subjects are factual and do not have sides to be argued. Subjective subjects are those about which you can take a side.

3a. Objective topic

“How much time do youth between the ages of 10 and 15 spend playing video games?”

3b. Subjective Question

“What are the effects of video-gaming on the attention spans of youth between the ages of 10 and 15?”

The first question is likely to lead to some data, though not necessarily to an argument or issue. The second question is somewhat better, since it might lead you to formulate an argument for or against time spent playing video games.

4. Open-Ended Topic Versus Direct Question

4a. open-ended topic.

“Does the author of this text use allusion?”

4b. Direct question (gives direction to research)

“Does the ironic use of allusion in this text reveal anything about the author’s unwillingness to divulge his political commitments?”

The second question gives focus by putting the use of allusion into the specific context of a question about the author’s political commitments and perhaps also about the circumstances under which the text was produced.

Research Question (RQ) Checklist

• Is my RQ something that I am curious about and that others might care about? Does it present an issue on which I can take a stand?
• Does my RQ put a new spin on an old issue, or does it try to solve a problem?
• Is my RQ too broad, too narrow, or OK?
• within the time frame of the assignment?
• given the resources available at my location?
• Is my RQ measurable? What type of information do I need? Can I find actual data to support or contradict a position?
• What sources will have the type of information that I need to answer my RQ (journals, books, internet resources, government documents, interviews with people)?

Final Thoughts

The answer to a good research question will often be the THESIS of your research paper! And the results of your research may not always be what you expected them to be. Not only is this ok, it can be an indication that you are doing careful work!

Adapted from an online tutorial at Empire State College: http://www.esc.edu/htmlpages/writerold/menus.htm#develop (broken link)

Last revised: November 2022 | Adapted for web delivery: November 2022

In order to access certain content on this page, you may need to download Adobe Acrobat Reader or an equivalent PDF viewer software.

Access : Research

Formulating Your Research Question

Essential considerations and examples.

Part 5 of the Access : Research series.

Now that you have chosen your research topic , defining your research question is the next step in the research process. Taking the time to carefully formulate your research question will help ensure the success and validity of your research project. Here are some key points to consider when formulating your research question:

Clarity and specificity: Your research question should be clear, well-defined, and specific, so that it can be answered in a focused and meaningful way. Avoid vague or overly broad research questions as they may result in ambiguous findings or make it difficult to conduct your research.

Answerability: Your research question should be answerable, meaning that it should be possible to gather data and evidence to provide a conclusive answer. Consider the feasibility of addressing your research question given the available resources, time, and scope of your study.

Alignment with research goals: Your research question should align with the overall goals and objectives of your research project. It should clearly state what you intend to investigate and why it is important.

Significance: It would be beneficial to emphasize the importance of choosing a research topic that is significant and has relevance to the field of study or to society as a whole. Researchers should aim to address gaps in knowledge, contribute to existing literature, or provide practical implications.

Research Ethics: It is crucial to mention the ethical considerations involved in selecting a research topic. Researchers should ensure that their proposed research adheres to ethical guidelines and safeguards the rights and well-being of participants, if applicable.

Feasibility and Resources: Researchers should assess the feasibility of their research topic in terms of available resources, time constraints, and access to necessary data or participants. Considering these factors at the initial stage can help avoid potential challenges or limitations during the research process.

Example # 1

Poorly formulated research question: "What causes cancer?"

This research question is overly broad, vague, and lacks specificity. It does not provide a clear direction for research and may result in a broad and unfocused study that is difficult to answer effectively.

Well-formulated research question: "What is the relationship between smoking and lung cancer in adults aged 50 and above, in a population-based cohort study in the United States?"

This research question is concise, clear, and constricted . It specifies the key concepts (smoking, lung cancer, adults aged 50 and above), the research design (population-based cohort study), and the study location (United States). It is focused, answerable, and aligns with the research goals of investigating the relationship between smoking and lung cancer in a specific population.

Example # 2

Bad research question: "What are the effects of climate change on the environment?"

Good research question: "What is the impact of rising temperatures on the nesting behavior of sea turtles in the Gulf of Mexico?"

This research question specifically addresses the impact of rising temperatures on the nesting behavior of sea turtles in a specific region, the Gulf of Mexico. It highlights a specific aspect of climate change and its effects on a particular species and behavior. This focused question allows for a more targeted and meaningful study.

A well-formulated research question should be specific, clearly state the key concepts or variables, identify the population or context of interest, and provide a clear direction for the research study. It should also be feasible to answer within the scope of the study and align with the research goals and objectives. Encouraging researchers to make their research questions concise, clear, and constricted can help ensure that their research is focused, meaningful, and able to generate valid and relevant findings.

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How to write qualitative research questions.

11 min read Here’s how to write effective qualitative research questions for your projects, and why getting it right matters so much.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a blanket term covering a wide range of research methods and theoretical framing approaches. The unifying factor in all these types of qualitative study is that they deal with data that cannot be counted. Typically this means things like people’s stories, feelings, opinions and emotions , and the meanings they ascribe to their experiences.

Qualitative study is one of two main categories of research, the other being quantitative research. Quantitative research deals with numerical data – that which can be counted and quantified, and which is mostly concerned with trends and patterns in large-scale datasets.

What are research questions?

Research questions are questions you are trying to answer with your research. To put it another way, your research question is the reason for your study, and the beginning point for your research design. There is normally only one research question per study, although if your project is very complex, you may have multiple research questions that are closely linked to one central question.

A good qualitative research question sums up your research objective. It’s a way of expressing the central question of your research, identifying your particular topic and the central issue you are examining.

Research questions are quite different from survey questions, questions used in focus groups or interview questions. A long list of questions is used in these types of study, as opposed to one central question. Additionally, interview or survey questions are asked of participants, whereas research questions are only for the researcher to maintain a clear understanding of the research design.

Research questions are used in both qualitative and quantitative research , although what makes a good research question might vary between the two.

In fact, the type of research questions you are asking can help you decide whether you need to take a quantitative or qualitative approach to your research project.

Discover the fundamentals of qualitative research

Quantitative vs. qualitative research questions

Writing research questions is very important in both qualitative and quantitative research, but the research questions that perform best in the two types of studies are quite different.

Quantitative research questions

Quantitative research questions usually relate to quantities, similarities and differences.

It might reflect the researchers’ interest in determining whether relationships between variables exist, and if so whether they are statistically significant. Or it may focus on establishing differences between things through comparison, and using statistical analysis to determine whether those differences are meaningful or due to chance.

• How much? This kind of research question is one of the simplest. It focuses on quantifying something. For example:

How many Yoruba speakers are there in the state of Maine?

• What is the connection?

This type of quantitative research question examines how one variable affects another.

For example:

How does a low level of sunlight affect the mood scores (1-10) of Antarctic explorers during winter?

• What is the difference? Quantitative research questions in this category identify two categories and measure the difference between them using numerical data.

Do white cats stay cooler than tabby cats in hot weather?

If your research question fits into one of the above categories, you’re probably going to be doing a quantitative study.

Qualitative research questions

Qualitative research questions focus on exploring phenomena, meanings and experiences.

Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research isn’t about finding causal relationships between variables. So although qualitative research questions might touch on topics that involve one variable influencing another, or looking at the difference between things, finding and quantifying those relationships isn’t the primary objective.

In fact, you as a qualitative researcher might end up studying a very similar topic to your colleague who is doing a quantitative study, but your areas of focus will be quite different. Your research methods will also be different – they might include focus groups, ethnography studies, and other kinds of qualitative study.

A few example qualitative research questions:

• What is it like being an Antarctic explorer during winter?
• What are the experiences of Yoruba speakers in the USA?
• How do white cat owners describe their pets?

Qualitative research question types

Marshall and Rossman (1989) identified 4 qualitative research question types, each with its own typical research strategy and methods.

• Exploratory questions

Exploratory questions are used when relatively little is known about the research topic. The process researchers follow when pursuing exploratory questions might involve interviewing participants, holding focus groups, or diving deep with a case study.

• Explanatory questions

With explanatory questions, the research topic is approached with a view to understanding the causes that lie behind phenomena. However, unlike a quantitative project, the focus of explanatory questions is on qualitative analysis of multiple interconnected factors that have influenced a particular group or area, rather than a provable causal link between dependent and independent variables.

• Descriptive questions

As the name suggests, descriptive questions aim to document and record what is happening. In answering descriptive questions , researchers might interact directly with participants with surveys or interviews, as well as using observational studies and ethnography studies that collect data on how participants interact with their wider environment.

• Predictive questions

Predictive questions start from the phenomena of interest and investigate what ramifications it might have in the future. Answering predictive questions may involve looking back as well as forward, with content analysis, questionnaires and studies of non-verbal communication (kinesics).

Why are good qualitative research questions important?

We know research questions are very important. But what makes them so essential? (And is that question a qualitative or quantitative one?)

Getting your qualitative research questions right has a number of benefits.

• It defines your qualitative research project Qualitative research questions definitively nail down the research population, the thing you’re examining, and what the nature of your answer will be.This means you can explain your research project to other people both inside and outside your business or organization. That could be critical when it comes to securing funding for your project, recruiting participants and members of your research team, and ultimately for publishing your results. It can also help you assess right the ethical considerations for your population of study.
• It maintains focus Good qualitative research questions help researchers to stick to the area of focus as they carry out their research. Keeping the research question in mind will help them steer away from tangents during their research or while they are carrying out qualitative research interviews. This holds true whatever the qualitative methods are, whether it’s a focus group, survey, thematic analysis or other type of inquiry.That doesn’t mean the research project can’t morph and change during its execution – sometimes this is acceptable and even welcome – but having a research question helps demarcate the starting point for the research. It can be referred back to if the scope and focus of the project does change.
• It helps make sure your outcomes are achievable

Because qualitative research questions help determine the kind of results you’re going to get, it helps make sure those results are achievable. By formulating good qualitative research questions in advance, you can make sure the things you want to know and the way you’re going to investigate them are grounded in practical reality. Otherwise, you may be at risk of taking on a research project that can’t be satisfactorily completed.

Developing good qualitative research questions

All researchers use research questions to define their parameters, keep their study on track and maintain focus on the research topic. This is especially important with qualitative questions, where there may be exploratory or inductive methods in use that introduce researchers to new and interesting areas of inquiry. Here are some tips for writing good qualitative research questions.

1. Keep it specific

Broader research questions are difficult to act on. They may also be open to interpretation, or leave some parameters undefined.

Strong example: How do Baby Boomers in the USA feel about their gender identity?

Weak example: Do people feel different about gender now?

2. Be original

Look for research questions that haven’t been widely addressed by others already.

Strong example: What are the effects of video calling on women’s experiences of work?

Weak example: Are women given less respect than men at work?

3. Make it research-worthy

Don’t ask a question that can be answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’, or with a quick Google search.

Strong example: What do people like and dislike about living in a highly multi-lingual country?

Weak example: What languages are spoken in India?

4. Focus your question

Don’t roll multiple topics or questions into one. Qualitative data may involve multiple topics, but your qualitative questions should be focused.

Strong example: What is the experience of disabled children and their families when using social services?

Weak example: How can we improve social services for children affected by poverty and disability?

4. Focus on your own discipline, not someone else’s

Avoid asking questions that are for the politicians, police or others to address.

Strong example: What does it feel like to be the victim of a hate crime?

Weak example: How can hate crimes be prevented?

5. Ask something researchable

Big questions, questions about hypothetical events or questions that would require vastly more resources than you have access to are not useful starting points for qualitative studies. Qualitative words or subjective ideas that lack definition are also not helpful.

Strong example: How do perceptions of physical beauty vary between today’s youth and their parents’ generation?

Weak example: Which country has the most beautiful people in it?

Related resources

Qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, business research methods 12 min read, qualitative research interviews 11 min read, market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, request demo.

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Thesis support: your research question.

• Describe the importance of a strong research question
• Identify methods for exploring existing literature
• Understand the difference between keywords and controlled vocabulary
• Produce a basic concept chart from your research question

Research Question Generator: Best Tool for Students

Stuck formulating a research question? Try the tool we’ve made! With our research question generator, you’ll get a list of ideas for an academic assignment of any level. All you need to do is add the keywords you’re interested in, push the button, and enjoy the result!

Now, here comes your inspiration 😃

Please try again with some different keywords.

Why Use Research Question Generator?

The choice of research topic is a vital step in the process of any academic task completion. Whether you’re working on a small essay or a large dissertation, your topic will make it fail or fly. The best way to cope with the naming task and proceed to the writing part is to use our free online tool for title generation. Its benefits are indisputable.

• The tool generates research questions, not just topics
• It makes questions focused on your field of interest
• It’s free and quick in use

Research Question Generator: How to Use

Using our research question generator tool, you won’t need to crack your brains over this part of the writing assignment anymore. All you need to do is:

• Insert your study topic of interest in the relevant tab
• Choose a subject and click “Generate topics”
• Grab one of the offered options on the list

The results will be preliminary; you should use them as an initial reference point and refine them further for a workable, correctly formulated research question.

Research Questions: Types & Examples

Depending on your type of study (quantitative vs. qualitative), you might need to formulate different research question types. For instance, a typical quantitative research project would need a quantitative research question, which can be created with the following formula:

Variable(s) + object that possesses that variable + socio-demographic characteristics

You can choose among three quantitative research question types: descriptive, comparative, and relationship-based. Let's consider each type in more detail to clarify the practical side of question formulation.

Descriptive

As its name suggests, a descriptive research question inquires about the number, frequency, or intensity of something and aims to describe a quantitative issue. Some examples include:

• How often do people download personal finance apps in 2022?
• How regularly do Americans go on holidays abroad?
• How many subscriptions for paid learning resources do UK students make a year?

Comparative

Comparative research questions presuppose comparing and contrasting things within a research study. You should pick two or more objects, select a criterion for comparison, and discuss it in detail. Here are good examples:

• What is the difference in calorie intake between Japanese and American preschoolers?
• Does male and female social media use duration per day differ in the USA?
• What are the attitudes of Baby Boomers versus Millennials to freelance work?

Relationship-based

Relationship-based research is a bit more complex, so you'll need extra work to formulate a good research question. Here, you should single out:

• The independent variable
• The dependent variable
• The socio-demographics of your population of interest

Let’s illustrate how it works:

• How does the socio-economic status affect schoolchildren’s dropout rates in the UK?
• What is the relationship between screen time and obesity among American preschoolers?

Research Question Maker FAQ

In a nutshell, a research question is the one you set to answer by performing a specific academic study. Thus, for instance, if your research question is, “How did global warming affect bird migration in California?," you will study bird migration patterns concerning global warming dynamics.

You should think about the population affected by your topic, the specific aspect of your concern, and the timing/historical period you want to study. It’s also necessary to specify the location – a specific country, company, industry sector, the whole world, etc.

A great, effective research question should answer the "who, what, when, where" questions. In other words, you should define the subject of interest, the issue of your concern related to that subject, the timeframe, and the location of your study.

If you don’t know how to write a compelling research question, use our automated tool to complete the task in seconds. You only need to insert your subject of interest, and smart algorithms will do the rest, presenting a set of workable, interesting question suggestions.

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When Asking Too Many Questions Undermines Your Leadership

• Luis Velasquez

Tips for balancing a learning mindset with confidence and decisiveness.

Although it’s widely accepted that good leaders are good learners, a learning mentality can also have a darker side. If not carefully managed, it might lead to a perception of decreased effectiveness, less expertise, and lower efficiency. Your learning mentality should be the catalyst for your personal growth and development — not a reason for others to question your leadership. For your inquisitiveness to be viewed as an asset, it should be perceived not just as mere learning, but as a way to gather knowledge, add value, communicate effectively, and make decisions quickly. The author offers five strategies to ensure your stakeholders’ perception of you aligns with your intentions.

Paul, a high-level executive in a technology company, former university professor, and expert in his field, attended a prestigious trade conference. Paul prides himself on having a learning mindset and felt at home surrounded by leading industry experts. He was eagerly engaged, asking questions about the latest trends and technologies to broaden his understanding and take in the expertise around him.

• Luis Velasquez , MBA, PhD, is an executive coach who works with senior leaders and their teams to become more cohesive, effective, and resilient. He is the author of Ordinary Resilience: Rethinking How Effective Leaders Adapt and Thrive and the founder and managing partner of Velas Coaching LLC . He is also a leadership facilitator at the Stanford University Graduate School of Business, and a former university professor and research scientist. Connect with him on LinkedIn .

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The ultimate guide to the best time to buy a new car

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Timing isn't everything; but if you've decided you want (or need) a new car, the month, day, and even time you go in and complete the deal can affect how good of a deal you get. There are two sides to thinking about this: First you need to decide whether it's the right time for you to get a new car, and secondly, we have some valuable advice to follow on when exactly you might find that better deal. If you’re wondering when is the best time to buy a car, you’re in the right place, and soon, you might find yourself test driving a new car .

Is the best time to buy a car the same for everyone?

The best time of year to buy a car may vary based on personal circumstances that overrule conventional wisdom. Assuming you've already decided that a new car—versus a used car—is best for you (and that's a separate debate altogether), you need to ask yourself some important questions: What does a car mean to you? Is it an extension of your image, or is it purely an appliance? If you're a salesperson, realtor, or other professional and having the right newer vehicle is important for your professional image, then don't wait. You should be considering leasing anyhow.

How do I know the best time to buy a car for me?

If you're planning to buy, you should consider the state of your current car. Has it been reliable? Would you feel better with a new vehicle before or after winter? Does your current vehicle get poor gas mileage that would be offset by getting a new, more fuel-efficient car sooner? In any of these cases, it might not be worth waiting for the few hundred dollars you might potentially save by buying at the right time. 

Leasing vs. buying

Whether you’re leasing or buying, it’s important to keep an eye on interest rates. Interest rates are a more obvious factor when buying, but they do affect manufacturer-sponsored lease deals and incentives. Shopping carefully for the best car deals could save you money every month, whether you’re paying down your loan or making your monthly lease payment. Buying a car rather than leasing may also be more complicated, since when buying, you might be more tempted by car dealer options .

Fall vs. spring

Each fall, dealerships clear out vehicles from the current model year and welcome in truckloads of models for the new year. It can, for those who aren't as familiar with auto industry, seem like it should be one of the best times to buy. But for a number of reasons, it's not. One of them is that auto sales head into a natural upswing in the fall, as those new model-year vehicles show up, and shoppers head in to see them. Additionally, with families back from vacations, heading into a new school year or new contracts, and then ramping up to the holiday season, there's no shortage of potential customers.

Secondly, if you buy a car from the outgoing model year in the fall, even though you're likely to get a somewhat better deal on the lot, you're likely to take an even bigger hit on depreciation the moment you sign the sale papers and drive off the lot. Unless you plan to keep your car for a very long time—and the deal that you get on an already-dated model outweighs the momentary plunge in price—you're best to wait until a time when the dealership needs your business.

When is that? Based on analysis of pricing data from TrueCar—based on hundreds of thousands of vehicle sales, nationwide—you're likely to get the best deal on a new vehicle in the spring. May in particular could be the best month, as the stock of vehicles at dealerships is typically strong, and it's traditionally been one of the make-or-break times of the year for vehicle sales, before sales take a seasonal sputter in the summer.

Other times of the year, major holiday weekends like Memorial Day are additional windows of opportunity—because dealerships often have extended hours to move metal, and the pressure's on with many other potential customers out for a long weekend. 

Other factors

As we've outlined in previous posts like this one, knowing when to shop and get the best deal is complicated, and there might not be a single right answer to the question when is the best time to buy a new car. However, the typical level of discount you get from a new vehicle could differ by one percent or more of the total vehicle price, depending on the time of the month you shake hands. 

Generally (and using data-supported advice from the vehicle-pricing site TrueCar), we can stand by the following advice on when you're more likely to find the best deal (hint: weekday evenings aren't that time). The end of the month is better, typically. Major holiday weekends are windows of opportunity. Finally, Monday mornings are also a good time to shop.

Financing is one final piece to the question of the best time to buy a new car. If you're ready to jump into a new car, keep an eye on interest rates with your bank or credit union. Just a slight ride in the going rate could substantially bump up your monthly payment—or require a longer loan than you intended. If you think that rates are on the way up, don't put this off too long.

Remember that, all this considered, there's one other “best time” to go shopping for a new car, and that's after you've done some research—on potential models, pricing, and specs—and you can do it all here in our New Cars section.

Frequently Asked Questions

What time of year are cars cheapest to buy.

Looking for the best buy in auto sales? Generally, spring is probably the best time of the year to get the best deal, because dealer stock is typically strong and it's often considered a make-or-break month for the industry, before summer. In the fall, as the current model-year vehicles are getting cleared out and replaced by new ones, you'd better be getting a deep discount off sticker price, as the plunge in resale value—that you see the moment you drive off the lot—is even steeper.

What month do car prices drop?

Is it a good time to buy a car? According to experts, cars are most often available with significant discounts in December, and these discounts tend to carry through January and February.

Is it better to wait until the end of the month to buy a car?

Generally, yes. Experts advise that it may be easier to get a good deal on a new car at the end of the month.

What's the slowest month for car sales?

If, like many other shoppers, you’re wondering what’s the best month to buy a car based on sales rates, experts advise to shop during December, January, and February.

When is the right time to buy a car financially?

Your personal finances can absolutely play a role in whether or not it’s the best time to buy a car. If you’re not in desperate need of a car, it’s wise to wait until you have a down payment saved up and you qualify for low interest rates. However, if your current car is costing more in repairs and gas, it may be wise to run the numbers and decide if it’s better for you financially to buy a car sooner.

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Money blog: Global shares plummet; US recession fear; UK lender slashes mortgage rates - with one at 3.49%

Welcome to the Money blog, your place for personal finance and consumer news and tips. Leave a comment - or a money problem/consumer dispute, remembering to leave your contact details - below.

Monday 5 August 2024 21:01, UK

Markets sell-off

• Global stock markets tumble amid fears of US recession
• Explained : US recession could be 'huge' for global economy
• Lower mortgage rates and energy bills in UK if US enters recession
• UK lender cuts mortgage rates amid market tumble

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• Money Problem : 'I cancelled a booking and they won't give me a refund because I didn't give 14 days' notice - what are my rights?'
• New £190 switching offer from TSB - here's what you need to know
• Aldi launches latest copycat product - it's much cheaper but what do nutritionists think?
• Is equity release ever a good idea? Industry experts we spoke all seems to agree
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• Best of the Money blog - an archive of features

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We're pausing our live coverage for today - scroll back through to catch up on all the major developments as global stock markets tumbled amid fears of a US recession after an unexpected increase in joblessness across the pond.

Want to catch up at a glance? Here's a recap of events today:

• Stock markets around the world dropped sharply this morning - the UK's FTSE 100 was down more than 2%;
• Trillions were wiped off US markets when they opened at 2.30pm UK time;
• Some of the biggest losers in the US were Intel, Amazon, Arm Holdings, Nvidia and Tesla;
• The chances of a US interest rate cut rose as markets priced in a 90% chance of a reduction next month;
• The US turbulence was described by our NBC colleagues as a "complete U-turn" to a few weeks ago when "we were talking about the resilience of the US economy";
• And what it could all mean here in the UK - one lender said it would cut mortgage rates, with an analyst saying: "If the US sell-off continues, and given the current geopolitical backdrop, there is the potential for some deep cuts from major lenders this week and into next."

We'll be back tomorrow with live updates - good night.

By Sarah Taaffe-Maguire , business reporter

It would have been unthinkable to suggest that just days after deciding to hold interest rates that pressure would be mounting for an emergency cut in the cost of US borrowing.

Last week the US central bank, known as the Fed, announced it was making no change to interest rates, keeping them high to slow price rises. 

But today the global stock market sell-off led to calls, and an expectation among some quarters, of an emergency intervention by the interest rate-setters at the Federal Reserve. Investors began to bet an emergency cut could be made. 

Such measures are only taken in extreme circumstances. It would be the first time since March 2020, right at the outset of COVID-19 lockdowns, that such a move was taken.  

The monetary policy regulator is mandated to do two things: keep inflation at 2% and have high levels of employment.

Throughout today commentators and officials have noted stock market performance is not a core concern of the Fed. 

A 0.5 percentage point cut is now viewed by investors as the most likely course of action for the Fed's next meeting in September. Further cuts in November and December are also being priced in.

It comes amid worry the Fed misjudged the economic risk of keeping rates high, as it did in 2021 when pandemic-era inflation was increasing costs for consumers. The inflation increase was judged to be transitory but the effects of economic shocks on prices are still being felt in the US and across the world.

Away from the main news of the day - the global market plunge - to the home of English rugby.

Rugby chiefs have agreed to sell the naming rights to Twickenham Stadium, the home of the national rugby union side for the past century.

Sky News can reveal that the Rugby Football Union (RFU) has struck a deal with Allianz, the German insurer, to add its brand to one of the world's most famous rugby venues.

Sources said the RFU and Allianz were planning to rush through an announcement of the partnership after both were contacted by Sky News on Monday afternoon.

The value of the deal was unclear, although sources said it would represent a significant boost to the governing body's finances.

Read the rest of City editor Mark Kleinman 's report here:

Major US stock indexes had made up some losses by the middle of the trading day around an hour ago.

The Dow Jones Industrial Average was down less than 800 points, or just short of 2%, after falling as much as 1,100 points earlier in the day.

The S&P 500 was down 2.2% after declining more than 3% earlier.

And the tech-focused Nasdaq was off 2.6% after declining as much as 4.3% to start the day.

Stocks were bolstered after a business-services report that signalled the US economy remained on firm footing.

Trump makes hay

The turbulence has been seized on by Donald Trump, who managed to turn it into a political issue and help get #kamalacrash trending on X.

On his Truth Social account, Trump posted "KAMALA CRASH!" followed quickly by "KAMALA CRASH vs. TRUMP CASH!"

Right-wing accounts on X including Libs of TikTok, RNC Research and End Wokeness were quick to follow as they attempted to portray the market drawdown as the result of Kamala Harris's recent surge in polls.

The turbulence in the US stock market isn't done yet.

Investors will be looking for signs of the market bottom, which is the lowest point in a market decline, or the turning point where selling stops and buying begins.

John Roque, the senior managing director of New York based asset management firm 22V, has picked out six signs to look out for that the market bottom is approaching.

1. The yen needs to stop strengthening against the dollar

The strengthening of the Japanese yen has ruined profits from carry trades, which is when investors sell something in one currency and buy something in another. 

A settling down of the exchange rate, according to Mr Roque, would give carry-trade investors a "chance to catch their breath".

2. 'Leadership stocks need to stop going down'

High-performing and influential companies in the US stock market like Apple, Google, Amazon and Meta will need to see their stocks stabilise.

That would be a sign investors don't feel like raising more cash and are happy with the risk in their portfolios.

3. Stock indexes becoming oversold

A stock is regarded as oversold when it has suffered a sharp decline, and markets believe it may have become undervalued as a result.

When the Relative Strength Index (RSI) drops below 30, a stock or index is considered oversold. 

4. Bond prices need to stop going up

The price of bonds moves inversely to interest rates - meaning they go up when the interest rates go low.

5. Changing rhetoric from the Federal Reserve

The Fed meets in Wyoming in Jackson Hole in late August to discuss the economy. 

Talk coming out of that meeting about a rate cuts would "help investors' psyches", according to Mr Roque.

6. VIX volatility index peaking

The Cboe Volatility Index (VIX) is a key measure of expected volatility in the stock market and is often referred to as Wall Street's "fear gauge".

Once the VIX peaks and starts to fall down, market recovery can follow quickly. Currently, the VIX is up 245% over the past month.

Some financial analysts believe the market plunge in the US represents investors overreacting. 

Economists, including Gregory Daco at EY, suggested today's events mark an outsized reaction to worry that the US Federal Reserve didn't lower interest rates fast enough.

"The market panic appears disproportionate," he wrote in a note to clients today. 

"In our opinion, the core issue lies with the Fed being behind the curve, in action and in thought, rather than a significant economic downturn."

Furthermore, the chief economist at RSM US said it was a case of  "classic market panic". 

Joseph Brusuelas was also keen to point out that the market is not the same thing as the economy.

Stocks across the pond have recovered slightly from this morning's freefall but are still significantly down.

The US is "uncomfortably close" to a recession, a former Federal Reserve economist has said.

"We might not be there, but we're getting uncomfortably close," Claudia Sahm told Bloomberg TV.

The unexpected increase in US joblessness reported on Friday has been "in the past, consistent with 'early in recession'", she added.

Ms Sahm had a word of caution for policymakers, however, saying they should think before making quick decisions: "Calm is important at a moment like this."

The weak jobs report triggered the so-called Sahm Rule, an indicator of recession named after Ms Sahm.

A key measure of expected volatility in the US stock market surged to its highest level in more than four years today as global equities fell sharply.

The  Cboe Volatility Index , or VIX, broke above 50 today, up from about 23 Friday and roughly 17 a week ago.

This is the highest the VIX has been since March 2020, shortly after the Federal Reserve's  emergency actions  during the COVID pandemic, according to FactSet. 

The VIX rose as high as 85.47 in March 2020, according to FactSet.

A UK lender has said it will cut mortgage rates amid the market tumble we've been reporting on.

Effective from tomorrow, The Mortgage Works (TMW) will be reducing rates by up to 0.45 percentage points across its product range.

That means rates will start from as low as 3.49%.

New rates include:

• Two-year fixed rate (purchase and remortgage) buy-to-let at 3.49% with a 3% fee, available up to 65% LTV (reduced by 0.05%) 
• Five-year fixed rate (purchase and remortgage) limited company buy-to-let at 4.59% with a 5% fee, available up to 70% LTV (reduced by 0.25%)
• Five-year fixed rate (purchase and remortgage) limited company buy-to-let at 4.99% with a 3% fee, available up to 75% LTV (reduced by 0.30%)
• Two-year fixed rate (purchase and remortgage) limited company houses in multiple occupation (HMO) at 4.94% with a 3% fee, available up to 75% LTV (reduced by 0.45%) 

Will other lenders follow suit?

"These sizeable cuts from TMW could set the tone among the wider lending community," Riz Malik, director at R3 Mortgages, told Newspage. 

"If the US sell-off continues, and given the current geo-political backdrop, there is the potential for some deep cuts from major lenders this week and into next. 

"However, lenders may wait to see if this is a short-term blip before they commit to repricing products and getting inundated with business during the holiday season."

We've reported extensively on forecasts for rate cuts here in the UK over the last year - and that is one of the big talking points in the US right now.

Just last week the Fed held the main interest rate stateside as the economy looked robust - but the odds have now dramatically shifted on the future path.

Markets are now pricing in a 90% chance of a cut in September.

In fact, after the lacklustre July jobs report on Friday, odds shifted quickly to a 75% chance of a 0.50% interest rate cut.

Our US partner network NBC News is reporting that markets are now pricing in 8.5% odds that the Fed could even cut by an oversized 0.75%.

"The immediate implication is that investors fear that the economy may weaken rapidly and want the Fed to cut rates aggressively to maintain economic growth," Paul Christopher, head of global investment strategy at Wells Fargo Investment Institute, wrote in a note today.

As we have been discussing, big movement on rates in the US could prompt similar action here in the UK as central banks tend to move in unison.

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How our relationships are changing in the age of “artificial intimacy"

Early adopters are flocking to AI bots for therapy, friendship, even love. How will these relationships impact us? MIT sociologist Sherry Turkle delves into her new research on "artificial intimacy."

Sherry Turkle giving her TED Talk James Duncan Davidson / TED hide caption

MIT sociologist Sherry Turkle on the psychological impacts of bot relationships

by  Manoush Zomorodi ,  Katie Monteleone ,  Sanaz Meshkinpour

TRH: Artificial Intimacy

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Why, Exactly, Are Ultraprocessed Foods So Hard to Resist? This Study Is Trying to Find Out.

Understanding why they’re so easy to overeat might be key to making them less harmful, some researchers say.

Supported by

By Alice Callahan

Photographs by Lexey Swall

Alice Callahan spent two days at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Md., and interviewed more than a dozen researchers about ultraprocessed foods.

• Published July 30, 2024 Updated July 31, 2024

It was 9 a.m. on a Friday in March, and Ernest Jones III was hungry.

From a hospital bed at a research facility at the National Institutes of Health in Maryland, he surveyed his meal tray: Honey Nut Cheerios with fiber-enriched whole milk, a plastic-wrapped blueberry muffin and margarine.

Listen to this article with reporter commentary

“Simple, old school,” one of those “Saturday morning breakfasts from back in the day,” said Mr. Jones, 38, who is studying to become a pastor.

He was about halfway through his 28-day stay at the N.I.H., and Mr. Jones was one of 36 people participating in a nutrition trial that is expected to be completed in late 2025. For one month each, researchers will draw participants’ blood, track their body fat and weight, measure the calories they burn, and feed them three meticulously designed meals per day.

The subjects don’t know it, but their job is to help answer some of the most pressing questions in nutrition: Are ultraprocessed foods harmful to health? Are they a major driver of weight gain and obesity? And why is it so easy to eat so many of them?

If researchers can answer these questions, they say, perhaps there are ways to make ultraprocessed foods healthier.

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Rethinking urban spatial planning and industrial development approaches in Ethiopia: bridging gaps for better outcomes

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 05 August 2024
• Volume 2 , article number  17 , ( 2024 )

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• Melaku Tanku   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4462-5152 1  

Urbanization is occurring at an unprecedented rate in developing countries like Ethiopia, especially with the rapid growth of industrialization. However, this urbanization and industrial development surge puts immense pressure on preparing and implementing city spatial plans. Urban spatial planning plays a crucial role in shaping the development of cities, aiming to create livable and sustainable urban development. The plan-making process and its subsequent implementation often encounter challenges that hinder the realization of planned objectives. Galan and Dukem, cities near Addis Ababa’s capital, have seen substantial industrial investment in recent decades. This article explores the challenges associated with urban spatial planning and industrial development while proposing alternative approaches. The paper relies on information gathered from primary and secondary sources, including expert surveys and key informants’ interviews. The research highlights that industrial developments have led to significant and uncontrolled changes in urban land use and urbanization in the study areas. Due to the lack of clear planning guidelines and institutional capacity, the study cities are experiencing haphazard development without effective urban spatial plans. Proximity to Addis Ababa has driven the urbanization process through increased investments. The article contends that effective management of urbanization and industrialization can create enjoyable living conditions and foster job growth. Macroeconomic policies, including industrial policies, should pay attention to spatial elements and prevent policy-making processes that are “space-blind”. This, however, requires clairvoyance and a high level of expertise, integrating inputs from advocacy planning and community participation to bridge gaps and ensure effective urban spatial plans and industrialization processes.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Cities development is a continuous process and not static. National policies commonly generate unintended spatial biases linked with haphazardly harming the city’s social, economic, and political setup (Renaud, 1981 , p. 8). Consequently, these rapid processes of urban spatial changes must be guided by plans to mitigate those harmful effects (Alem, 2021 ; Melesse et al., 2022 ). Cities make important contributions to economic and social transformation. As cities rapidly industrialized, urban spaces became increasingly commodified (Lefebvre, 1991 ; Zieleniec, 2018 ). Thus, public open spaces, agricultural land, water bodies, etc. came under growing pressure in many developing countries’ cities, leading to their decline in size and number. The growing commodification of urban spaces and the attendant deterioration of other urban land use gave rise to issues of equity, social justice, and sustainability (Soja, 2010 ). Every planning endeavor undertaken by the government across all administrative tiers has some spatial repercussions. These ramifications can be either direct, such as on a physical location, or indirect, stemming from the impact on factors that gradually or abruptly, consciously or inadvertently, reshape the spatial landscape (Acheampong, 2019 ; Bidandi & Williams, 2020 ).

The industrialization process and its subsequent rapid population growth resulted in an opportunity and a challenge. As an opportunity, it allows the chance to promote a dynamic self-sustaining urbanization process, which is an integral part of the overall economic structural transformation in the country (Schmidt et al., 2018 ). Contrarily, it may result in social, physical, and financial stress (Mehdipour & Rashdi, 2016 ). It is commonly argued that urbanization driven solely by population growth, lacking the essential prerequisites, can lead to chaos, potentially causing poverty, unemployment, criminal activity, and societal problems (Kassahun & Tiwari, 2012 ; Tadesse & Imana, 2006 ). On this point, Tiffen ( 2003 ) has noted that the urbanization of poverty has become a primary global concern when rapid urbanization occurs at ever-accelerating rates in developing countries. Fragmented decision-making between economic development agencies and urban planning departments can lead to conflicting priorities and strategies. Coordinated decision-making is essential to harmonize economic development goals with urban spatial planning objectives. Weak urban spatial planning capacity in African countries has been one of the main factors behind weak integration between industrial and urbanization development (Cheru & Aklilu, 2020 ). To tap into the benefits of cities as centers for industrial development, it is essential to implement purposeful policies at various levels (Abera, 2020 ).

Urban spatial planning should have a long-term vision that anticipates and accommodates industry growth and technological advancements. A lack of foresight and flexibility can lead to inadequate infrastructure, inadequate land allocation, and missed opportunities for economic development (Cartwright et al., 2018b ). Effective urban planning requires coordination among various sectors to ensure cohesive and sustainable development (UN-Habitat, 2009 ). Inadequate coordination can result in disconnected transportation networks, housing shortages, environmental degradation, and inefficiencies in resource allocation. A global agreement exists that effective development planning and execution necessitate thoughtfully structured multi-level governance systems, wherein strategic choices and authority are decentralized to the most grassroots level (Pieterse, 2019 ). Urban planning should consider the provision of essential physical infrastructure such as roads, utilities, and public amenities. Neglecting infrastructure needs can lead to congestion, inadequate services, and hindered economic growth.

Urban spatial intervention is highly affected by a country’s political process, which defines who gets what of the limited resources available (Lefebvre, 1991 ; Merrifield, 2006 ). Hence, the spatial decision process has undoubtedly affected the urbanization and industrialization processes and trends. It is critical to emphasize that cities foster investment and economic development. The study’s geographical unit has focused on attracting investments and enhancing revenue generation. It is important to note here that it is difficult to undermine the local political process that brought about market-induced urban land-use changes (McCarthy & Smit, 1981 ). Tian et al. ( 2017 ) highlighted that a blend of state coercion and market dynamics influenced the alterations in urban land use in China. According to McCarthy and Smit ( 1981 ), the new urban economics perspective attributes urban land-use modifications and spatial choices within cities to a combined influence of political and economic factors.

A practice that has historically hindered citizens’ full participation in planning processes is the “unitary plan” approach. This approach suggests that only one agency in a community, typically the city planning commission or department, should be responsible for preparing a comprehensive plan (Davidoff, 2016 ). The Oromia Urban Plan Institute (OUPI) was established under Regulation No 67/2006 and has since undergone several restructuring processes. The most recent restructuring coincided with overhauling the regional government’s executive branch, as stipulated in Proclamation No 242/2021 (OUPI, 2017a , b ). OUPI is an autonomous entity empowered to develop policies, supervise regulations, and implement urban planning projects (Tanku & Woldetensae, 2023a ).

Akin to numerous developing nations, Ethiopia’s urbanization level has been relatively low, yet it has shown a growing trend. Specifically, urbanization was recorded at 11.3 percent in 1984, subsequently increasing to 13.7 percent in 1994 and 16.1 percent in 2007. As of 2020, the estimated level of urbanization has risen to approximately 22 percent, accompanied by a total of 2056 urban centers Footnote 1 (CSA, 1984 , 1994 , 2007 ; MoUDC, 2020 ). Considering the continuous processes of urbanization and industrialization, it is understandable that the nation has witnessed a growth in the number of urban hubs. This phenomenon aligns with Renaud’s observations. He points out that the early stages of urbanization and industrialization led to population concentration in a few urban centers due to economies of scale and the desire to minimize risk and uncertainty (Renaud, 1981 ). According to Melesse et al. ( 2022 ) in Ethiopia, top-down and bottom-up planning approaches apply simultaneously. This study focuses on major challenges and alternative approaches to urban spatial planning where planning practices are highly centralized. Only a few case studies have touched upon broader implications for urban spaces and urbanization, albeit they still need to propose alternative urban spatial planning approaches for better outcomes. This study seeks to bridge the gap by providing empirical evidence on challenges and alternative urban spatial planning approaches. It aims to explore how existing urban spatial plans influence industrial developments and their locations in the urbanization processes. The ensuing section examines the theoretical discourse, while Section 3 concentrates on the materials and methods employed. Subsequently, the results and discussions are presented, leading to the final section encompassing the conclusion.

2 Literature review

2.1 planning approaches: theoretical debate.

“City planners bring cities to life and life to cities and have done so for centuries using plans” (Neuman, 2007 , p. 215). Planning uniquely unites different space users and provides a holistic view of the space itself. The presence of diverse stakeholders and the characteristics of the space contribute to a broader understanding of the potential interplay between interests, conflicts, and resources (Kristof et al., 2016 ). Urban planning approaches are diverse strategies and methodologies governments, urban planners, and stakeholders use to guide the development and growth of cities and urban areas. Different urban planning approaches are employed based on specific objectives, priorities, and the unique characteristics of each urban context (UN-Habitat, 2009 ). Plans facilitate the connection between individuals and locations by uniting them to collectively shape the fate of their surroundings and their own lives. Through this process, plans establish a connection between the past, present, and future (Neuman, 2007 , p. 213). One interpretation of planning pertains to the deliberate involvement of collective entities, including the government and organized civil society, in shaping urban spaces so that outcomes may be turned in one or the other’s favor (Friedmann, 1998 , p. 251). In discussing, it is worth mentioning that planning theories contain universal assumptions that do not hold in many parts of the world (Watson, 2008 ).

Comprehensive rational planning is a traditional approach to urban planning that follows a systematic and logical process (Quattro & Daniels, 2022 ) and a procedural theory focusing on the planning process rather than an object or end goal (Faludi, 1973 ). A comprehensive plan reflects the belief that the planning system should plan towns as a whole and in detail (UN-Habitat, 2009 , p. 5). Rationalists are seen as those who have logical reasons for their views or decisions based on facts rather than emotions or values (Taylor, 1998 ). It involves gathering data, analyzing information, setting clear objectives, and formulating rational strategies to achieve specific goals. Proponents of comprehensive planning perceive it as an indispensable and logical instrument that integrates various critical planning facets including physical land use planning and social, economic, and environmental aspects to safeguard the public interest and steer the city’s distant future (Mahiteme, 2008 ). Comprehensive plans bring individuals, fields of study, urban roles, challenges, concerns, and concepts within institutional frameworks. Plans become central sources of contention when these elements clash (Neuman, 2007 , p. 215). Rational Comprehensive planning emanates from synoptic thinking, data, models, computation, and quantitative measures per se. However, it often neglects the complex underlying factors, such as politics, culture, and other non-quantifiable elements integral to real-world contexts (Quattro & Daniels, 2022 ; UN-Habitat, 2009 ). According to Taylor ( 1998 ), rational planning is the best method or process of planning and is designed to produce persuasive reasons. Conversely, critics of the comprehensive planning strategy base their viewpoint on the pragmatic challenges of addressing complex and interconnected issues while collaborating across numerous policy areas, rendering effective plans excessively difficult. Comprehensive planning is often accused of promoting an unfeasible and ambitious approach (Mahiteme, 2008 ).

Advocacy planning, introduced in the mid-1960s, is a planning approach that emphasizes the role of planners as advocates for social justice and equity (Davidoff, 2016 ; Sager & Sager, 2022 ). For urban planning to promote democratic urban governance, its functioning should facilitate citizen participation rather than exclude them from engaging in the process (Davidoff, 2016 ). It entails involving marginalized communities and advocating for their interests within the planning process (Feld & Pollak, 2017 ). Advocacy planning was blamed for serving narrowly defined interests. In contrast, the proponents of advocacy planning claim that it represents broadly shared interest (Mahiteme, 2008 ). Feld & Pollak ( 2017 ) indicates that the difference between comprehensive and advocacy planning lies in the role of values as a key element of the planning process.

Communicative planning emphasizes the importance of communication and dialogue in the planning process. It recognizes that planning decisions involve multiple stakeholders with diverse perspectives, and effective communication is vital to reach a consensus and shared understanding (Foley, 2000 ). Healey ( 1997 ) recognizes that political intervention and domination in the planning process, albeit through active communicative acts, can be modified. The primary function of the planner is to listen to people’s ideas and assist them in reaching a consensus when there is a different point of view (Mahiteme, 2008 ). Through communicative planning, residents express their vision of an ideal urban setting and influence decisions that affect their living environment (Foley, 2000 ).

An integrated approach to planning has recently dominated as cities’ geographic scale, and problems have become increasingly more significant. Due to inadequacy in far-sighted planning practice, urban issues such as unemployment, homelessness, environmental challenges, housing, and transportation are difficult to resolve and continue to pose significant challenges. To solve such interrelated urban problems an integrated approach to planning has been suggested recently. “The terms ‘structure plans’ and ‘strategic plans’ are closely related, and the latter term is now more commonly used. A strategic plan is a broader-level, selective (or prioritizing) spatial plan, usually showing the desired future direction of urban development more conceptually. Particular decision-making processes accompany a strategic plan” (UN-Habitat, 2009 , p. 5). Master plans are visual representations that map out an urban region’s envisioned physical condition and layout at a future moment. They have also been called ‘end-state’ and ‘blueprint’ plans (UN-Habitat, 2009 , p. 5). In light of the preceding, a master plan, an integrated plan, or a structural plan should be conceptualized in the social, political, economic, and environmental context of the country set up (Tanku, 2018 ).

Every urban-oriented policy, regulation, and program in Ethiopia defines its planning framework as a hybrid structure aiming to optimize both “bottom-up” or “discretionary” approaches or “participatory planning” as well as “top-down” or “regulatory” or “planning standards” (Melesse et al., 2022 , p. 170). In sum, the main differences between comprehensive rational planning, advocacy planning, and communication planning theories lie in their approaches to decision-making, community involvement, and the role of communication. Comprehensive rational planning is expert-driven and data-focused (Quattro & Daniels, 2022 ; UN-Habitat, 2009 ), advocacy planning is community-driven and aims for social equity (Sager & Sager, 2022 ), while communication planning emphasizes effective information sharing and collaboration among stakeholders (Foley, 2000 ; Healey, 1997 ).

2.2 Urban spatial planning and industrial development; interrelationship

Theoretical conceptions have explained the interconnections of industrial developments and urban spatial consequences in many streams of literature, including the political economy of urban land use (McCarthy & Smit, 1981 ), production of urban space (Lefebvre, 1991 ; Merrifield, 2006 ), location, and urban economic theories (Alonso, 1964 ), institutional framework (Healey, 1997 , 2007 ), and new economic geography (Krugman, 1998 ).

Urban spatial planning aims to integrate different land uses, including industrial areas, within a city or region (Guan et al., 2022 ; UN-Habitat, 2009 ). This involves strategically locating industrial zones (Tian, 2015 ), considering transportation access, proximity to residential areas, and compatibility with surrounding land uses (Daunt et al., 2021 ; Deslatte et al., 2021 ; Liu & Zhou, 2021 ). The goal is to create a harmonious urban fabric where industrial activities coexist with other functions, promoting efficient land use and minimizing conflicts. Effective urban spatial planning involves infrastructure planning that supports industrial development (Beyer et al., 2021 ). This includes assessing and providing adequate transportation networks and other physical infrastructure to facilitate industrial operations. Proper infrastructure planning ensures that industrial areas are well-connected, have access to necessary resources, and can function efficiently. Industrial development contributes to the economic growth of a nation or a city (Gebreeyesus, 2013 ; Li, 2017 ; Oqubay, 2015 ; Tesfaye, 2017 ). Hence, urban spatial planning should consider the economic impact of industrial activities (Beyer et al., 2021 ; Kumera & Woldetensae, 2023a ), identifying suitable land and land allocation (Daunt et al., 2021 ; Hersperger et al., 2018 ; Koroso et al., 2021 ), and infrastructure provision (Beyer et al., 2021 ). Urban spatial planning needs to integrate environmental considerations into industrial development. This includes promoting sustainable industrial development practices, minimizing environmental impacts, and safeguarding natural resources.

Industrial development can have significant social implications. Urban spatial planning should consider the social well-being of local communities, ensuring equitable access to job opportunities, affordable housing, and social services (Abreha et al., 2021 ; Cheru & Aklilu, 2020 ; Gebreeyesus, 2013 ; Kumera & Woldetensae, 2023a ; Tanku & Woldetensae, 2023b ). It involves addressing potential adverse impacts, such as pollution and noise, and creating a balance between industrial needs and the quality of life for residents. Planners should play an active role in participatory settings, and oppose those that disproportionately benefit the already affluent (Fainstein, 2016 ). Successful urban spatial planning and industrial development require meaningful community engagement. It involves involving local communities, stakeholders, and industry representatives in planning, seeking their input, and addressing their concerns (Fischer, 2016 ).

These interrelationships highlight the importance of integrating industrial development into urban spatial planning processes, considering various factors such as infrastructure, economics, environment, social aspects, and community engagement (see Fig.  1 ). This integrated approach ensures that industrial development is well-planned, sustainable, and aligned with the broader goals of urban spatial planning.

Sustainable and Participatory urban spatial planning; interrelationship

2.3 Industrial and urban policy environs in Ethiopia; a retrospective analysis

Ethiopia has undergone several economic development policy phases under different regimes since the 1940s. The foundations for industrialization were laid during the Hailesilassie era in the 1940s and 1950s (Gebreeyesus, 2013 ; Oqubay, 2015 ; Teshome, 1994 ). From 1974 to 1991, the Derg regime’s socialist ideology suppressed private manufacturing investment, leading to the nationalization of businesses and firms (Gebreeyesus, 2013 ). This period became known as Ethiopia’s “lost decades” (Oqubay, 2018 ). Since the fall of the Derg regime in 1991, Ethiopia’s policy landscape shifted to a relatively centralized state-led development model, with restrictions on foreign investment and state ownership of the land (Altenburg, 2010 ; UN-Habitat, 2014b ). The government aimed to establish a market-based liberal economic system and acted as a “developmental state”. To achieve this, the government of Ethiopia devised various policies, strategies, and programs that outlined development priorities and goals for key economic sectors. Various (Altenburg, 2010 ; Gebreeyesus, 2013 ; Giannecchini & Taylor, 2018 ) studies confirm that Ethiopia has successfully implemented developmental state-oriented policies, leading to significant economic growth rates over a decade.

Soon after the EPRDF Footnote 2 took power in 1991, the country followed a policy direction known as Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI) to advance industrial output backed by agriculture. It was implemented in successive 5-year development plans, namely SDPRP Footnote 3 and PASDEP Footnote 4 (Gebre-Egziabher & Abera, 2019 ). The assumption was that, implicitly or explicitly, the agricultural sector must lead the industrial sector (Gebreeyesus, 2013 ; NPC, 2015 ). While the government argues that this represents the sole practical approach to stimulate industrialization, some contend that a sector as fragile as Ethiopian agriculture cannot take a forefront position in the country’s development (Befekadu & Nega, 2000 ). Ethiopia’s ADLI policy explicitly acknowledged the significance of agro-industrial connections in unlocking the country’s industrial potential (NPC, 2015 ). Nevertheless, these connections remain underdeveloped in practice (Brautigam et al., 2018 ). This implies that having a policy document is insufficient to achieve the desired outcomes. Moreover, the Ethiopian economy heavily relies on rain-fed agriculture and the ADLI strategy does not adequately address this central problem (Geda, 2001 ).

Since 2005, the EPRDF regime has strongly advocated for a developmental state ideology with “Ethiopian characteristics”, particularly following the contentious national election (in 2005). The late Prime Minister Meles Zenawi was the architect behind the Ethiopian “developmental state”, expressing dissatisfaction with neoliberalism while promoting “revolutionary democracy”. While Meles Zenawi’s leadership commanded widespread acceptance, the concept of revolutionary democracy remained ambiguous and subject to various interpretations throughout his lengthy tenure in power, even after he died in 2012 (Giannecchini & Taylor, 2018 ). Centralization is undoubtedly among the primary objectives of the development agenda, which is strongly influenced by Marxist-Leninist ideology. Despite the lack of clarity surrounding this discussion, it is crucial to recognize that such a political economy system has shown signs of revitalizing economic growth. In a nutshell, Ethiopia has made considerable strides in economic growth during the period characterized by the “developmental state” political economy (Gebreeyesus, 2013 ; Giannecchini & Taylor, 2018 ; Mbate, 2017 ). Henceforward, the 2018 political reforms spearheaded by Nobel Peace Prize laureate Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed have effectively ended this ideology. After this transformative period, he introduced a new ideology known as “Medemer”, translating to “synergy”, and pledged to avoid wrongdoing. Despite a comprehensive book dedicated to it, questions still need to be answered regarding this new ideology’s clarity and modus operandi.

The 1995 FDRE Footnote 5 super law constitution has stated many fundamental rights and freedoms in connection with urban development (FDRE, 1995 ). Only recently, urban development in Ethiopia was paid attention to, and the urbanization agenda has been kept in the dark because the national development strategy focused on ADLI (Cheru & Aklilu, 2020 ). However, the Federal Council of Ministers developed and approved the National Urban Development Policy in March 2005. It is the first government initiative to recognize the role of urban development in the national development agenda. The policy considers cities and towns as the nerve center of development that can foster national and rural development (MoUDH, 2015 ; NPC, 2015 , 2020 ). A national urban policy should aim to define a vision and set of linked actions by national governments to realize positive outcomes and address the problems arising from population growth and economic activity (UN-Habitat, 2014b , p. 5). Promoting a thriving urban-industrial economy necessitates implementing intentional policy actions supported by an enduring vision for economic transformation (Abera, 2020 ). In Ethiopia, the impetus behind formulating urban-related policies and regulations has been imperative in tackling numerous prevailing urban development issues (Melesse et al., 2022 ). All countries would benefit from a national urbanization strategy that results from a careful national debate about economic, political, social, and cultural goals (Renaud, 1981 ).

3 Materials and methods

3.1 description of the study area.

Oromia Regional State is one of the biggest regional states in Ethiopia. The study spatial units, namely, Galan and Dukem, are located in the Oromia Regional State 25 and 37 km south of Addis Ababa, respectively (see Fig.  2 ). They lie adjacent to each other along the highway between Addis Ababa and Djibouti. According to the most recent structure plan (2017), Galan population is 76,800, with a total household population of 21,333, and the city’s planning boundary is 9,068 hectares. Galan hosts approximately 110 operational industrial plants occupying about 625 hectares of land, encompassing various industries such as manufacturing, agro-processing, beverages, medicine, and pharmaceuticals (OUPI, 2017a , b ). In contrast, Dukem has a population of 85,839, 23,884 households, and a planning boundary covering 9,630 hectares. According to OUPI ( 2017a , b ), Dukem has 1 industry zone (Eastern Industry Zone within 200hectares of land), and there are about 264 industries that are functional in the city, including agro-processing industries, industrial manufacturing, chemical manufacturing, tannery, and leather products industry; textile and garment industries (OUPI, 2017a , b ). Astronomically, Galan and Dukem are located in an approximate geographical coordinate of between 8˚ 53′N – 8˚ 45′N latitudes and 38˚46′E – 38˚ 56′E longitudes.

The study area in its national and regional settings

Addis Ababa is the country’s commercial, political, administrative, and cultural hub. Addis Ababa has been a primate city in the country for a long time, with the primacy index being nearly 10 times larger than the second-largest city in Ethiopia (CSA, 2007 ). It is situated in the central part of the country and has solid interdependencies/linkages with these Oromia cities regarding the social, environmental, economic, and infrastructure aspects. These cities were selected for this study because (1) they are found next to each other and use urban spatial plans prepared by the same centralized institution (OUPI) (OUPI, 2017a , b ), (2) they have a substantial investment trend, (3) they have been facing rapid urbanization and industrialization, (4) they are close to major highways, the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway/import–export corridor, and a dry port.

3.2 Data collection and analysis

The study utilized primary and secondary data sources (see Fig.  3 ). Primary data was acquired through a structured survey involving 69 experts in September 2022, alongside interviews with 21 key informants conducted between May and July 2022 (see Table  1 ):

Methodological framework

The main reasons behind the selection of the above participants were: OUPI operates as an independent entity vested with the authority for initiating policies, regulating, overseeing, and executing urban plans within the Oromia region. The MUI is responsible for formulating a comprehensive national master plan and monitoring its execution. The consultants were deliberately chosen due to their familiarity with the ongoing progress in the two cities. Additionally, informal discussions were conducted with local communities, and conversations with planners and other relevant parties further aided in comprehending the complex dynamics involved in local plan implementation endeavors (Daunt et al., 2021 ). Professionals from relevant institutions were interviewed, chosen purposefully based on their engagement in planning and cumulative work experience within their organizations. A similar approach was recently employed by (Alem, 2021 ; Dinsa et al., 2023 ; Maru & Worku, 2022 ; Nikolić et al., 2021 ). Survey participants were provided with self-administered questionnaire links through the web-based application KoboCollect, which they utilized to complete and submit the questionnaires. To assess expert’s perceptions a Likert-style question format was used, involving a scale of five points (ranging from strongly agree to disagree strongly). Key informants (KIs) were presented with significant inquiries related to challenges in urban spatial planning, alternate approaches to formulating and executing urban spatial plans, emerging patterns at the intersection of industrial advancements and urban spatial planning, as well as violations of urban land use regulations (Fig.  3 ). Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) and Excel were used to check missing data, percent mismatch, and error encoding before analysis and interpretation. The research process involved reviewing and analyzing documents, such as the 2017 structure plans for the two cities, economic and physical plans, manuals, standards, directives, and national plans and policies.

Physical observations (Being There) in the two study sites were also conducted during the key informant interviewing period.

4 Results and discussion

4.1 background of the respondents.

Among the 69 experts surveyed, 65% were male, and 35% were female. Regardless of the gender compositions of the respective institutions, this does demonstrate the ideal size of female experts included in the survey. All respondents fall in the age category of 30–65; 55% had 8–15 years of work experience, and 45% had 16–65 years of work experience. This indicates that most respondents possess substantial experience in addressing the posed questions. Respondents had a diploma (3%), first degree (28%), second degree (67%), Ph.D., and above (8%). Of the respondents’ experts, Planners (30.4%), Economists (18.8%), Land management (8.7%), Sociologists (7.2%), Geographers (7.2%), Architectures (6%), Civil engineers (5.8%) Environmentalist (4.3%), Urban managers (2%). This suggests that the participants in the survey encompass a balanced blend of the necessary professions for engaging in urban spatial planning (MoUDC, 2014 ) and a diverse range of educational backgrounds.

4.2 Aspatial industrialization and apolitical urban spatial planning

In the study of cities, industrial development often occurs spatially uncoordinatedly, without adequate consideration for urban spatial planning (Alem, 2021 ; Dadi et al., 2020 ; Mohamed et al., 2020 ; Terfa et al., 2020 ). This means that industries are established without proper planning for their location, resulting in haphazard distribution across the urban landscape (Tanku & Woldetensae, 2023a , b ). The lack of spatial planning can lead to inefficient land use, congestion, and inadequate infrastructure (Beyer & Hagemann, 2021 ; Beyer et al., 2021 ; Damasco et al., 2021 ). The urban spatial planning in these cities is often apolitical, meaning that it needs to sufficiently consider the political dynamics and governance structures that shape urban development. Urban spatial planning implementation in Ethiopian cities requires political will (Tanku, 2018 ). As per Addis Ababa University academician, “ Decisions related to land use, zoning regulations, and infrastructure development made without proper consultation or consideration of the needs and aspirations of the local communities. This can result in a mismatch between urban planning strategies and the political and institutional frameworks ”. Respondents were asked in the expert survey about the urban spatial planning and industrial development interrelation in the study area, and their perceptions are presented in Table  2 .

The findings indicate (see Table 2 ) that a significant number of experts held a negative view of the presence of a transparent decision-making process for industrial development and urban land-use change. Specifically, 27 experts “Strongly disagreed” and 27 “Disagreed” with the statement, totaling 54 respondents in disagreement. The mean value of 1.9 indicates that most experts had a negative view, suggesting inadequate integration between socio-economic and physical planning. However, the expert survey results also demonstrate the potential for better integration of socio-economic aspects into physical planning.

Most experts believe that limited expertise in the urban plan-making process poses a challenge in achieving sustainable city and industry development. The mean value of 4.2 suggests, on average, that the experts’ perception strongly leaned toward agreement with the statement. The capacity to enforce urban planning regulations should be prioritized (UN-Habitat, 2009 ). A study by Dinsa et al. ( 2023 ) suggested that recruiting skilled personnel will improve the effective implementation of urban structure plans. Besides, most experts believe that the lack of baseline data for cities makes urban planning difficult. The mean value of 4.03 indicates, on average, that the experts’ perception leaned toward agreement with the statement. This is consistent with OUPI interviewed experts, data inconsistencies, inaccessibility, and complete absence are some of the problems of urban planners during the process of plan making . Cartwright et al. ( 2018a ) state that urban spatial planning requires data, analytical expertise, and robust evidence-based debate. A study by Nikolić et al. ( 2021 ) found that outdated data and incomplete sets of information used in the initial phase of plan-making are some of the main reasons for the failure of plan implementation.

The development of cities in developing countries is influenced by institutional and political-economic factors (Watson, 2003 , 2008 ). Institutional frameworks shape urban development, including laws, regulations, and administrative systems (Healey, 1997 , 2007 ). However, weak institutions, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and a lack of enforcement mechanisms can hinder effective urban planning and sustainable development. In addition, the political economy framework of a city can significantly impact its development trajectory (Goodfellow, 2013 , 2018 ). Political stability, good governance practices, and inclusive decision-making processes ensure that urban development aligns with the city’s and its residents’ best interests (Moberg, 2017 ). To address these challenges, it is essential to strengthening the linkages between industrial development, urban spatial planning, and the political and institutional frameworks in African cities. Unquestionably, the development of the urban-industrial economy is driven by key policy directives and associated programs and projects (Abera, 2020 ; Cheru & Aklilu, 2020 ). Pieterse ( 2019 ) argues that it is apparent that too much policy formulation and prioritization remain “space-blind” and not appreciative of the importance of urban development as a catalytic dynamic to achieve structural transformation. Reframing planning as both a technical and political endeavor involves making decisions regarding land policy, industrial development, and urban areas, intending to facilitate a social process of space creation (Goodfellow, 2018 ; Healey, 1997 ) (Fig. 4 ).

Industries dominated kebele (lowest administrative units in Ethiopia): Tullu Gurracha in Galan city

4.3 The answer is sustainable urban and industrial development but what was the question

Industrial and urban development is crucial in fostering economic expansion, generating employment opportunities, and enhancing residents’ quality of life (UNIDO, 2018 ). However, these developments must be guided by effective political and institutional frameworks to ensure sustainability (Tanku & Woldetensae, 2023a ). MUI key informant stated, “ Ethiopia’s political and institutional framework plays a crucial role in shaping industrial and urban development. It includes the legal and regulatory framework, administrative systems, and governance structures. It also helps attract investments, ensure compliance with environmental standards, and foster public participation in decision-making ”. A robust institutional framework is essential for effective urban planning, land management, and infrastructure development (UN-Habitat, 2009 ). Industrial development can contribute to spatial inequalities within urban spaces (Zhang, 2017 ). Urban spatial planning plays a vital role in determining the location and distribution of industrial activities (Cheru & Aklilu, 2020 ). Zoning regulations and land-use policies can either perpetuate spatial injustices or promote equitable development (Soja, 2010 ).

The political economy dynamics within cities can significantly influence industrial and urban development. Political interests, corruption, and rent-seeking behaviors can shape decision-making processes, impacting resource allocation, land use patterns, and infrastructure provision (Moberg, 2017 ). It is important to address these challenges by promoting transparency, accountability, and good governance practices. Regarding industrial development, Ethiopia has made efforts to attract local and foreign investments, particularly in sectors such as manufacturing (Gebreeyesus, 2013 ; Oqubay, 2015 ). This involves providing incentives, improving infrastructure, and creating a conducive business environment. The government’s industrialization policies aim to diversify the economy, reduce reliance on primary commodities, and promote value-addition and export-oriented industries (NPC, 2020 ). The perspectives of the surveyed experts (see Table  3 ) are used to identify and suggest the most critical factors for achieving sustainable industry and city development.

The respondents emphasized the importance of minimizing political decisions in spatial planning and industry development, controlling corruption and unethical practices, and ensuring stakeholder participation /integration in the community can contribute to sustainable industry and city development. According to Feltynowski ( 2015 ), local community participation is also a source of information that allows one to make the right decision and manage the city space in a better way.

Ethiopia’s urban development faces challenges, including rapid urbanization, inadequate infrastructure, and informal settlements (Cheru & Aklilu, 2020 ; Gebre-Egziabher & Abera, 2019 ; Koroso et al., 2021 ). To address these issues, urban planning and spatial development strategies are crucial (Tanku & Woldetensae, 2023a ). This involves developing master plans (Mahiteme, 2007 ), zoning regulations (Daunt et al., 2021 ), and land-use policies that promote sustainable urban growth (Damasco et al., 2021 ). Furthermore, the political and institutional framework must support citizen participation and engagement in decision-making processes (Davidoff, 2016 ). Inclusive governance structures allow for the representation of diverse voices, ensuring that the needs and aspirations of different groups are considered in urban development plans. Community-led initiatives, participatory budgeting, and partnerships between local governments and civil society organizations can enhance citizen involvement and improve the effectiveness of urban development strategies (Zheng & Zheng, 2022 ). However, participatory governance goes beyond and contributes to developing practical communication skills, citizen empowerment, and community capacity (Fischer, 2016 ).

The 1995 FDRE constitution has stated many fundamental rights and freedoms concerning urban development. Interaliea, article 44 of the FDRE constitution states the right to live in a clean and healthy environment of the citizens. Secondly, article 43 of the FDRE constitution states the right to development. Sub-articles under Article 43 outline three fundamental principles: the entitlement to enhanced living conditions, the promotion of sustainable growth, and the right to engage in public involvement. Third, articles 43/2 and 89/6 of the FDRE constitution state the right to participate in national development and to be consulted with respective policies, projects, etc. Besides, article 90/1 of the FDRE constitution states that government policies aim to provide all Ethiopians access to public health and education, clean water, housing, food, and social security (FDRE, 1995 ). In sum, for all these rights of the citizens to be respected, urban planning ought to be designed to promote urban development. The planning implementation process must benefit the people’s interests as a whole.

4.4 Primate city and urban growth corridor formation: the development dynamics and challenges

Megacities and villages represent only the very extreme ends of a continuum. Refraining from considering the possibility of enhancing living standards in smaller towns would mean overlooking the most substantial portion of human living areas in the years to come (FIG, 2004 ). The development dynamics between a primate and a small city can be complex, particularly when considering haphazard development, poor administrative linkages, and land grabbing (Fitawok et al., 2020 ; Terfa et al., 2017 , 2020 ). A primate city, often the capital or most significant in a country or region, tends to dominate economic, political, and cultural activities (Shi et al., 2020 ). It attracts a substantial share of investments, infrastructure development, and public services, creating a disparity between the primate city and smaller cities. This concentration of resources and opportunities in the primate city can lead to haphazard development as the city becomes the primary focus of attention and investment. Haphazard development in the primate city can result in imbalanced growth, with infrastructure and services needing to be more adequately distributed to smaller cities. This creates challenges for small cities, which may need help attracting investments, providing basic amenities, and promoting sustainable economic activities. As a result, small cities may need more support in providing employment opportunities, quality education, healthcare, and other essential services to their residents.

Galan and Dukem are located near the primate city, which is a source of the market, and industrial developers want to invest in and around the area. Galan municipal administration officials were interviewed, and it was discovered that a large number of applicants for land were received daily. However, there is no guarantee that they will not speculate and use the land for other purposes. A key informant academician attested, “ The implication of the urban corridor formation would not stop the expansion of additional infrastructure. It will also enhance the growth of urbanization and integrated economic development along Addis Ababa-Bishoftu economic growth corridors. The proximity of Galan and Dukem to Addis Ababa has a tremendous advantage as it brings a comparative advantage to goods export and import ”. According to MoUDH ( 2015 ), industrial areas must be built and properly situated in the designated corridors for the corridor development strategy to be successful. Upgrading this corridor through road infrastructure will help boost economic and tourism capital and help agricultural products reach the central areas of the region. The Oromia region has plans to develop a Special Economic Zone named ‘Gadaa’ between Adama and Mojo cities (OWWDSE, 2019 ). These initiatives underscore the growing significance of the Addis-Adama corridor, where the studied cities are situated. Despite these efforts, Ethiopia still faces significant challenges in achieving sustainable industrialization and urban development (Abreha et al., 2021 ; Cheru & Aklilu, 2020 ; Gebreeyesus, 2013 ; Kumera & Woldetensae, 2023a ; Tanku & Woldetensae, 2023b ).

Poor administrative linkages exacerbate the disparities between primate cities and small cities. A senior consultant stated, “ Limited coordination and communication between different levels of government can hinder effective planning and resource allocation. This can lead to fragmented development, with small cities experiencing neglect and a lack of integrated urban planning strategies. Inadequate administrative linkages can also impede the sharing of best practices, and knowledge between cities, hindering the replication of successful development models. Another challenge is land grabbing. ”. Primate cities are more susceptible to land grabbing due to increased demand for land and urban expansion. This can lead to displacement, social unrest, and environmental degradation, further widening the gap between primates and small cities (Fitawok et al., 2020 ; Otazo-s et al., 2017 ). An academician pointed out “ Transparent and accountable governance structures in Addis Ababa and Galan and Dukem cities are essential for effective land management in Addis Ababa and surrounding cities ”. Addressing the disparities between primate cities and small cities requires a comprehensive approach. This includes addressing haphazard development (Mohamed et al., 2020 ) and strengthening the political and institutional framework (Tanku, 2018 ). Implementing urban growth control measures that contradict market mechanisms proves to be fruitless and ineffective in fostering sustainable expansion of primate cities, but, more significantly, they can result in substantial financial burdens (Chengri et al., 2022 ).

OUPI expert attested, “ The overlapping boundaries in these spatial units (Addis Ababa-Galan-Dukem) has been a common phenomenon. In some cases, the city administration is unaware of the exact boundaries of the jurisdiction. Following this, land use has overwhelmingly been abused ”. Angel et al. ( 2012 ) argued that room is required for urban expansion in rapidly growing cities and should consider their expected fragmentation levels. Ethiopia’s urban system faces various challenges, including some stemming from past development policies that went astray. Among these issues, a particularly noteworthy concern in the country’s urban system is the problem of urban primacy (Cheru & Aklilu, 2020 ; Gebre-Egziabher & Abera, 2019 ). It is argued that primacy goes counter to promoting a balanced urban system and defusing development to more expansive areas that would improve equity and reduce poverty (Roberts, 2014 ). Empirical evidence by Mercandalli et al. ( 2023 ) from Zimbabwe shows that because primate cities do not function as potent growth drivers, the dynamics of territories are swiftly transforming due to renewed movement of individuals, commodities, services, and information across various economic sectors, as well as between rural and urban regions. In contrast, a case study from China indicates that primate cities play a pivotal role in advancing the holistic progress of provinces regarding economic, societal, cultural, and ecological development (Shi et al., 2020 ).

4.5 Addressing urban and industrial development irregularities through institutional and political economy frameworks

Throughout history, urban growth has been a common characteristic of development in all nations. As countries progress economically, economic activities tend to concentrate more densely in, cities, and metropolitan areas (World Bank, 2009 ). It is crucial to emphasize that such growth necessitates effective planning and institutional frameworks to guide economic development and manage city expansion appropriately. As per Lall et al. ( 2017 ), regulations lack inherent mechanisms for enforcement. Consequently, more human capacity and financial resources are needed to ensure effective implementation. In a broader context, urban plans’ original intentions and results are altered due to institutional shortcomings, divisions, political involvement, and insufficient regard for a city’s political dynamics. Institutions and policies shape the development processes and influence the direction of technological progress and growth rate (Peres & Primi, 2009 ). According to Wade ( 2009 ), the future policy dialogue should consider the particular problems and institutional frameworks of countries to ensure that the industry policies selected are appropriate for the relevant country and implemented effectively.

Institutional and political economy frameworks can be crucial in addressing urban and industrial development irregularities. In numerous developing nations, including Ethiopia, deficient urban spatial planning is a shared concern, frequently resulting in unplanned urban expansion, insufficient infrastructure, and ineffective land utilization. To confront this challenge, it is imperative to consider both frameworks’ underlying principles. The government should establish effective national, regional, and local urban planning institutions. These institutions should have clear mandates, adequate resources, and skilled personnel to develop comprehensive spatial plans that promote sustainable urban development (UN-Habitat, 2009 ). Integrating various stakeholders, including urban planners, architects, engineers, and community representatives, is vital for participatory and inclusive urban planning processes. Above all, there should be a democratic way of viewing urban spatial plans (Davidoff, 2016 ).

In recent times, there has been a significant rise in industrial concentration in Galan and Dukem cities (see Fig.  5 ). The mean value of 2.24 on legal rules and regulations suggests that, on average, the experts’ perception leaned towards disagreement with the statement (Table  4 ). Most experts believe that the legal rules and regulations for industry developers are not conducive, indicating that the current policies and frameworks do not support the development of industries in urban areas. Most experts believe the investors’ interests have contributed to urban land use violations. This suggests that certain investments may lead to non-compliance with existing land use regulations, resulting in violations and potential negative impacts on urban development. The mean value of 3.48 indicates that, on average, the experts’ perception leaned toward agreement with the statement. Most experts believe that political interference during the preparation of the urban spatial plan has indeed contributed to land use violations. Historically, urban planning has primarily fallen under the central government’s jurisdiction. In recent decades, from the mid-to-late 1900s, decentralization has gained momentum (Lall et al., 2017 ).

Galan and Dukem cities in 2010 (left) and 2022 (right) using Google Earth Pro image

According to Nikolić et al. ( 2021 ), one of the problems of plan implementation is the high dependence of the local government on the national government. The mean value of 3.81 suggests that, on average, the experts’ perception leaned toward agreement with the statement. This perception highlights concerns about the negative impacts of political influences on the planning process, potentially leading to decisions prioritizing political interests over effective land use management and compliance with regulations. The majority of experts believe that national industrial policies lack sufficient sectoral integration. The mean value of 3.71 indicates that, on average, the experts’ perception leaned toward agreement with the statement. This perception highlights a concern that industrial policies may not be adequately aligned or integrated with various sectors, potentially leading to inefficiencies and conflicts in development planning and implementation.

Dukem city administration informant confirmed, “ Industries have been located without considering cities’ spatial plans, resulting in transportation inefficiencies, and limited access to markets and labor ”. To improve the industry and urban spatial nexus, institutions can facilitate the development of effective industrial policies and strategies. This would involve collaboration between government agencies responsible for industry, and urban planning. Industrial clusters or special economic zones near urban centers can encourage agglomeration effects, promote industry collaboration, and enhance the linkages between industry and urban areas (Abera, 2020 ). Institutions play in tackling this challenge through robust governance mechanisms and policy frameworks. This involves establishing clear regulations, incentives, and support systems for industrial growth.

The political economy conceptual framework is linked with how the decision of politicians to amass industries along the corridor without adequate urban and regional integrated planning. Political economy also links how the political stuff led to Ethiopia’s industrialization initiative a geography ignorant scheme. A case in point is an academician pinpointed that “ Often government has not taken into consideration space in macroeconomic planning such as industries development ”. The EPRDF, which exclusively dominated Ethiopian politics for almost three decades, had a heavy hand in controlling every level of the tier with highly centralized decision-making authority which passed to all tiers very tightly (Ayele, 2014 ). To summarize, having an institutional and robust administrative framework are crucial assets that empower a city to continue its operations despite political shifts. Conversely, the absence of stable institutions and administration has been responsible for the failures of policies and strategies designed to tackle cities’ complex challenges (Mahiteme, 2008 ).

4.6 Urban spatial planning and industrial development practices: bridging gaps for better outcomes

There should be an ongoing commitment for those concerned about shaping cities’ future (Marcuse, 2016 ). Urban spatial planning and industrial development practices are integral to shaping and managing cities. There is a call for participatory urban spatial planning and industrial development approaches (UN-Habitat, 2009 ). Questions regarding participation and competence are closely related to the issue of capacity building. Capacity building, which involves developing a community’s collective ability to address problems, directly impacts the sense of social togetherness (Fischer, 2016 ). For the planning process to promote democratic urban governance, it must function to include citizens rather than exclude them from participating in the process (Davidoff, 2016 ). Dukem City’s key informant stated, “ In principle, a master plan is a legally binding document that regulates land use, and infrastructure development. Nonetheless, in many instances, the cities developed before or during the plan approval ”. Another area that requires attention is the relationship between industrial development and urban spaces. Industrial zone integration within urban areas can enhance efficiency, minimize transportation needs, and create synergies between industries and surrounding communities (Kumera & Woldetensae, 2023b ).

All suggestions score a high mean value above 4, indicating the participants’ level of agreement with the suggestions (Fig.  6 ). Hence, the participants strongly agreed that community participation should be integral to the urban spatial planning and implementation process right from the beginning. Community participation is crucial because it involves residents and stakeholders in the planning. Their insights, needs, and preferences are valuable for identifying relevant issues, setting priorities, and ensuring that the planning aligns with the requirements and aspirations of people living and working in the area. Incorporating community participation from the outset fosters transparency, inclusivity, and ownership of the planning decisions, leading to more sustainable and widely accepted development outcomes (Zheng & Zheng, 2022 ). It helps avoid potential conflicts and enhances the chances of successful implementation by ensuring that the plans address the genuine needs and concerns of the people affected. The experts also strongly agreed that strong institutions are essential for effective urban spatial planning and implementation. Strong institutions provide stability, continuity, and accountability in planning, leading to better decision-making and more successful implementation.

Experts’ suggestion for a better urban spatial planning and implementation process

Experts agreed with the importance of lobbying, advocacy, and communication in urban spatial planning and implementation. Effective lobbying and advocacy efforts can raise awareness about urban planning issues, gain support for specific projects or policies, and influence decision-makers to consider sustainable and equitable development strategies. Open and effective communication channels foster better understanding, trust, and collaboration between different stakeholders, which can lead to more informed and well-rounded planning decisions (Foley, 2000 ). A study by Tanku ( 2018 ) confirmed that one of the reasons behind the failed attempt at integrated planning between Addis Ababa and Oromia region special zone was the lack of effective lobbying and advocacy. There is an increasing recognition that citizen participation should be based on more comprehensive and diverse principles, institutions, and methods. These principles begin with a more equitable distribution of political power, a fairer allocation of resources, and the decentralization of decision-making processes (Fischer, 2016 ). Plans should be created in consultation with the target population. However, it is important to note that the existing population should not have sole authority over the area. Citywide considerations must also be taken into account (Fainstein, 2016 ). The involvement of participatory urban planning enhances the quality, credibility, and overall effectiveness of planned development, encompassing social, economic, and environmental aspects (Melesse et al., 2022 ).

In conclusion, while urban spatial planning and industrial development practices have undergone significant transformations, there is always room for improvement. By continuously striving for better practices, cities can be more resilient, livable, and equitable for their inhabitants while minimizing negative environmental impacts. “Inclusion” goes beyond simply allowing citizens to be heard. It also entails enabling them to be well-informed about the underlying reasons behind planning proposals and to respond to them in the technical language of professional planners (Davidoff, 2016 ). While citizen participation is valuable, it should also be acknowledged that local governments’ capacity plays a significant role. Capacity-building programs can enhance local officials’ skills and knowledge, enabling them to address urban challenges (UN-Habitat, 2009 ). Based on the empirical evidence from the study, the following shifts in planning approaches are recommended: (see Fig.  7 ):

Shifting the planning approaches based on empirical evidence of the study

Shifting from haphazard to managed settlement planning results in more efficient land use and infrastructure utilization (Fig.  4 ). Transitioning from isolated to integrated planning allows for a more comprehensive and coordinated approach to urban development, optimizing resources and services. Instead of a one-size-fits-all approach, space-based planning enables cities to preserve natural assets, protect the environment, and promote sustainable growth. Finally, moving from top-down to participatory planning fosters greater community engagement and social inclusion, resulting in more equitable and responsive urban development. These planning shifts are not mutually exclusive and often complement each other. Incorporating these methods into urban planning can create more resilient, sustainable, and livable cities, benefiting present and future generations.

It is clear that a holistic approach, encompassing industry, urban livelihood, political governance, and institutional frameworks, is necessary for achieving sustainable and inclusive growth. Addressing the challenges and harnessing the opportunities, possible to strive for balanced development across all cities. Above and beyond, industrial projects should undergo heightened scrutiny and be obligated to offer direct advantages to individuals with low income. These benefits should encompass employment opportunities, public amenities, and fair wages. Additionally, when public subsidies are provided, involving public participation allows for project profit sharing (Fainstein, 2016 ). The considerable challenge of non-compliance with urban plans and the absence of community involvement in urban planning have been prominent concerns. Nearly all key informants have emphasized the issue of plan infringement. According to regulations, plans must undergo local consultations, receive technical evaluations by the OUPI, and obtain approval from the local council to be legally binding for a specified period, typically around 10 years (MoUDH, 2018 ). However, this is frequently disregarded and not adhered to. A key informant highlighted, “ Insufficient regular oversight of plan implementation by both the public and higher authorities has resulted in unnoticed and unaddressed plan violations ”.

4.7 Urban spatial planning, industrial development and land allocation: alternative approaches

Urban spatial planning requires accurate and comprehensive data on population demographics, infrastructure needs, economic trends, and environmental conditions. OUPI experts attested, “ The lack of reliable data and information hampers the ability to make informed decisions and develop effective urban spatial planning ”. As per OUPI ( 2017a , b ), linear settlements along the main road affect the nature and urban shape of Galan and Dukem cities, contributing to an unbalanced distribution of urban services. Galan and Dukem, city administration officials, argued that limited opportunities for meaningful engagement and insufficient public awareness often exclude community perspectives and undermine the legitimacy of planning decisions. Public participation is crucial for inclusive and responsive urban planning (Watson, 2003 ). Cities need strong governance structures and transparent institutions to effectively manage resources, implement development plans, and promote citizen participation.

A collaborative governance model that involves multiple stakeholders such as government agencies, urban planners, architects, community representatives, and private sector actors (Healey, 1997 , 2007 ). This approach ensures that diverse perspectives are considered and promotes coordination and integration in planning (UN-Habitat, 2009 , 2014a ). Consideration for public–private partnerships in urban politics and planning; and the spatial consequences of the privatization of planning (Shatkin, 2016 ). MUI expert pinpointed that “ Implementing data-driven decision-making processes by utilizing advanced technologies such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and data analytics tools can provide accurate and up-to-date information about the urban environment, population dynamics, and infrastructure needs, enabling evidence-based planning ”. Davidoff ( 2016 ) states that expanding the scope of planning to encompass all areas of government concern would imply that city planners must have a more comprehensive understanding of the structure and forces influencing urban development. Some existing considerations for privatization of planning may help to implement efficiently. The privatization of planning refers to the shift of responsibility and power from the public sector to private actors in terms of envisioning urban futures and taking social action for urban change (Shatkin, 2016 ).

The capacity and authority of local governments to enforce zoning regulations and building codes. This can be achieved through training programs for local officials, establishing monitoring mechanisms, and providing adequate resources for enforcement activities (UN-Habitat, 2009 ). Planning education should be redirected to offer specialized channels in different areas of public planning and a central focus on the planning process. The professional planning association should expand its scope to ensure that city planners specializing in physical planning are not excluded (Davidoff, 2016 ). Community participation can enhance the efficiency of programs in terms of resource utilization and the effectiveness of projects in achieving their intended outcomes, in developed and developing regions (Fischer, 2016 ). The interviewed academician suggested “ Promoting closer collaboration and coordination between economic development agencies and urban planning departments. This can be achieved by establishing joint task forces or inter-agency committees to facilitate information sharing, align objectives, and integrate industry development plans with urban spatial planning strategies ”. OUPI, MUI, and Galan and Dukem city administrations interviewed experts who agreed on “ Implementing integrated planning frameworks. They attest that cities need to work together, and there should also be cross-sectorial collaboration ”. Key informant’s suggestions on major challenges and alternative approaches of planning are summarized in Table  5 :

The importance of institutions is indispensable in urban spatial planning and implementation courses otherwise, the old problem of ‘ The Tragedy of the Commons ’ likely applies in the planning exercise. An interviewed academician pointed out, “ Unless scarce urban land allocation for investors is accomplished through reliable institutions and regulations, the land is abused. On top of this “regulations with teeth” are required for regulating urban land allocation and urban spatial planning and implementation ”. The urban spatial plan primarily involves allocating land resources (Faludi, 1973 ). The long-lived and prevailing land shortages, the prominent price escalations, the diverse malpractices like corruption and illegal land occupations, and other ailments in the country’s land sector have been widely spelled out by Yirsaw ( 2010 ) and Stebek ( 2015 ). According to the Marrakech Declaration, achieving sustainable land development entails an intricate interplay of political, legal, socio-economic, and ecological elements. Improving human living conditions in rural and urban areas relies on implementing a unified land policy and adopting a holistic approach to promote sustainable land management (FIG, 2004 , p. 3).

Urban land, infrastructure, and service malmanagement are directly influenced by the interaction among policymakers, service providers, and consumers of services (Mahiteme, 2008 ). Urban plans in Africa do not consider finances, market dynamics and interests, social diversity, or differences among income groups (Freire et al., 2014 ; Lall et al., 2017 ). “Cities expand haphazardly without an effective land-use plan to guide and control new developments. This produces a patchwork of different developments, including businesses and high-density residential settlements, interspersed with the land that remains undeveloped and is held by its owners in anticipation of speculative gain” (Satterthwaite, 2007 , p. 58). Given the complexities in Ethiopia, only some actions can channel urbanization onto a more sustainable and efficient path. Therefore, comprehensive, multi-dimensional land management and administration reform is needed, which would entail revising the current policies, laws, regulations, and practices (World Bank, 2015 ). Merrifield ( 2006 ) argued further to “manage” an unmanageable contradiction, a new crew of frauds enters the fray: planners and politicians, technocrats, and taskmasters. Healey ( 1999 , p. 118) pointed out that place-focused public policy involves developing a viewpoint or system of meaning on place qualities and trajectories to the multiple conceptions of those who cohabit in an area. The existing state-centric monopoly toward the mono-route land-use market needs to be changed to non-monopolized multitrack land-use markets (Stebek, 2015 ).

5 Conclusion

The current OUPI urban planning practices are the traditional master, and comprehensive rational plans, which have proven inefficient in developing countries. A more integrated planning approach is imperative to fully harness the potential of available resources and planning expertise in the study of cities. In alignment with Kristof et al. ( 2016 ), I contend that there is no such thing as a flawless urban spatial planning system. However, it is essential to prioritize the well-being and livelihoods of local communities since, ultimately, planning is meant to serve the people. It is evident that fostering robust community involvement and integrating inputs from advocacy planning is imperative for effective urban development. The historical deficiency in citizen engagement, characterized by the notion of a “unitary plan,” as identified by Davidoff ( 2016 ), underscores the significance of revitalizing the planning process. To address this, a crucial recommendation is to decentralize the role of the centralized planning entity, OUPI, by transferring its functions to the municipal level within cities. This shift towards decentralization will enhance local empowerment, enable tailored solutions, and promote a more inclusive and responsive urban spatial planning framework. It is essential to shift the focus from promoting a singular government agenda, such as rational comprehensive planning, towards embracing a multifaceted public interest approach, exemplified by advocacy planning. The urban planning practices within the study cities would greatly benefit from prioritizing diverse community needs and perspectives. To achieve this, a pertinent recommendation is to integrate advocacy planning principles into the urban spatial planning framework, ensuring that the voices of various stakeholders are acknowledged and incorporated. This shift will result in more resilient, inclusive, and sustainable urban development that effectively addresses the intricate challenges faced by these cities.

This article emphasizes that an unplanned allocation of investments and insufficient consideration of locations can hinder economy-wide growth, leading to haphazard growth corridors and urban expansion issues. The interconnectedness between industrial development and national policies underscores the importance of discussions surrounding the trade-offs between investment expansion and sustainable urban spatial consequences. As nations navigate the complexities of industrial growth and development, it is essential to acknowledge the interconnected nature of various policies. Recognizing the interplay between industrial development, urban spatial planning, and political and institutional frameworks is crucial. By adopting an integrated and participatory approach, strengthening institutions, and promoting political stability, cities can bridge the divide and work towards sustainable and inclusive urban development that meets the needs and aspirations of their residents. Above all, government modus operandi must be based on urban spatial planning laws and principles.

The research solely relies on experts’ surveys and insights gathered from interviews, precluding the opportunity for extensive quantitative analysis. Consequently, forthcoming studies should consider these limitations and aim to fill these gaps. Doing so could facilitate a more nuanced and holistic comprehension of the subject matter, easing more informed decision-making in urban spatial planning.

Availability of data and materials

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the author upon request.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the Oromia Urban Planning Institute and all the interview partners for sharing their expertise in the study. I am specifically grateful to Mr. Derirssa Amdissa, Dr. Eyasu Kumera, Dr. Hayal Desta, and Mrs. Selamawit Fetene for sharing their knowledge and information for the research.

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Tanku, M. Rethinking urban spatial planning and industrial development approaches in Ethiopia: bridging gaps for better outcomes. FURP 2 , 17 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44243-024-00043-0

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Received : 24 April 2024

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Published : 05 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s44243-024-00043-0

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