social development in nepal essay

European Bulletin of Himalayan Research

Accueil Issues 58 Book reviews Political Economy of Social Chang...

Political Economy of Social Change and Development in Nepal , by Jeevan R Sharma

Political Economy of Social Change and Development in Nepal , by Jeevan R Sharma. New Delhi: Bloomsbury. 2021, 215 pages, 6 B/W photos, ISBN HB 978-93-89449-23-5

Texte intégral

1 Jeevan Sharma has offered up a bold and tidy review of the social and political impact of seventy years of development in Nepal. The book has several special merits to mention. It has a strong conceptual clarity of purpose. It adopts an integrative approach to relate political and policy domains to conditions on the ground, with dynamic shifts in patterns of inequality, and with the responses to political economic change by different categories of Nepalis. Furthermore, the author brings his expertise in migration studies to illuminate the characteristics and theorisation of this phenomenon, which has come to dominate contemporary understandings of Nepal’s social change and the role of the state.

2 The book’s discussion of Polanyi’s Great Transformation provides a set of criteria for examining Nepal’s uneasy passage from an agrarian, patrimonial state dominated by patron-client structures of wealth generation on an imperial periphery, to a more market-powered society disembedded from old ties of occupation and status, arrived at through a series of convulsions including civil war, earthquake disaster and the promulgation of a secular republican constitution. The crux of the analysis lies in how the penetration of market values in Nepal’s social worlds and the release of many categories of Nepalis from conditions of unfree labour have not been countered by state welfare and social protection measures, which Polanyi’s ‘double movement’ entailed, despite the occupation of the state by various left-leaning and Maoist-led or -partnered governments in recent years. Polanyi’s work is appropriately updated with Nancy Fraser’s discussion of the domestic work of care in dealing with market and austerity effects, and with her attention to emancipation as a third kind of movement, which has value for Sharma in understanding how different groups of marginalised Nepalis have experienced certain freedoms without particularly finding their economic condition any more secure. This is an outcome congruent with neoliberal paradigms of social change.

3 Four substantive chapters cover the emergence of new political citizenships in Nepal, the way rural livelihoods have altered from relatively un-commodified agrarian relations, the increasing role of migration and education in society and economy and the historical shifts of development paradigms with ongoing legacies of patronage politics. The conclusion raises the paradox that the countermovement to political-economic change has ‘largely been discursive’ (p205) and that kinship networks have carried the burden of coping with precarities of global labour markets.

4 For this reviewer, there is a strange absence in the approach and characterisation of the problem of political economy of development in Nepal. Briefly, this is neglect of the role that the environment has played as a disaster-prone urgent dimension in Nepal’s development history, and the more recent expression of this as climate change. The celebrated debates on environmental crisis in the 1970s and 1980s are referred to at the start of the concluding chapter, but how issues of deforestation and soil erosion and their links with population pressure came to dominate and legitimise development, and subsequently how the model of community forestry came to be lauded as Nepal’s great contribution to development of environmental governance are hardly featured. Community forest user groups do get a mention as a subcomponent of grassroots initiatives. The more complex politics of environmental protection as contributing to the alienation of rural Nepalis from their rights to territories and pushing them out of viable subsistence economies into regional labour markets, with nearly a quarter of Nepal’s land mass taken over by protected areas, does not get a mention in the book. Conservation is not discussed at all, thereby missing how the denial of livelihood rights of forest access acted to save rhinos and red pandas, but also acted as a de facto move of dispossession against mostly Janajati homelands extending state power. Nor is the significance of the shift to the sustainable development paradigm following the 1992 Rio Earth Summit mentioned, which triggered a reassessment of development purposes and social justice priorities, and helped put in place new approaches of conservation-with-development policies. These included the locally controlled forest user groups that even Maoists came to recognise as grassroots and pro-poor (just a brief discussion of Sharma’s co-authored work with Andrea Nightingale on this occurs on p166–167). Several chapters of Smadja’s (2003) tremendous collection for which the English translation is Reading Himalayan Landscapes Over Time could have helped give a more nuanced account of how conservation, tourism and the sandwiching of the state between local and international NGOs projects in these areas transformed people’s environmental livelihoods in highly differentiated ways, while depoliticising these domains as spaces for emerging citizenship rights in general.

5 A broader take on how environmental change disrupts twentieth century versions of how to frame what matters in the political economy of development could include the way studies of migration also cry out to be integrated in contextualised understandings of the combined effects of climate change and globalisation. Migration and climate change work in conjunction for the long-term and irreversible disruption of relationships between people, territories and states. After the failure of the modernising years of integrated rural development projects to bring substantive change in the prospects of village economies, due to elite capture of development budgets intended for the poor, the post-Cold War ‘peace dividend’ led to reduced aid investments in livelihoods and abandonment of the agrarian world by many of the poor and landless. On this leg of the migration story from rural to urban environments, Sharma is extremely insightful. His chapter on mobility ends with a fascinating discussion of what happens to Bahuns, Magars and Dalits from Palpa district on encountering city ways of living and in causing surprising shifts in consumption, group association and self-presentation across these different caste and ethnic categories. Dalits notably experience discrimination and disadvantage when they seek accommodation and work in the city.

6 The book would have benefited from more attentive editing. There are several citations that have the wrong date. Pages 93 to 97 have one single paragraph without a break.

7 Overall, Sharma’s book amounts to a greatly valuable provocation, which will attract deserved attention to its argument, its concepts and how this story of unmet promise can be elaborated and disputed. It is to be welcomed for being highly informative about substantive changes that have occurred at the national level, and for bringing genuine and compelling voices into the analysis that make the reader notice the importance of bringing accounts of political economic change into conversation with the perspectives of the masses of people who directly live within and act to make those changes.

Bibliographie

Polanyi, K. 1944. The Great Transformation: The political and economic origins of our time. Boston: Beacon Press.

Smadja, J (ed). 2003. Histoire et devenir des paysages en Himalaya. Représentations des milieux et gestion des ressources au Népal et au Ladakh . Paris: CNRS Editions, collection Espaces et Milieux.

Smadja, J (ed). 2009. Reading Himalayan Landscapes Over Time. Environmental perception, knowledge and practice in Nepal and Ladakh . Collection Sciences Sociales No 14. Institut Français de Pondichery: CNRS.

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Référence électronique.

Ben Campbell , « Political Economy of Social Change and Development in Nepal , by Jeevan R Sharma » , European Bulletin of Himalayan Research [En ligne], 58 | 2022, mis en ligne le 15 juillet 2022 , consulté le 30 juin 2024 . URL : http://journals.openedition.org/ebhr/475 ; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/ebhr.475

Ben Campbell

Ben Campbell is an environmental anthropologist at Durham University with research interests in sustainability, in the politics of indigenous agro-ecology and forests in the Himalayas, and especially among Tamang speaking people in Nepal. Since climate change has had increasing impact on Himalayan livelihoods, he has turned to consider energy transitions in communities affected by migration.

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Taking on Poverty and Inequality in Nepal

Faris hadad-zervos.

An enumerator conducts Living Standards Survey in Nepal

Nepal’s recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic is underway. Domestic demand for investment and consumption has recovered, tourists are beginning to return to Nepal as borders reopen, and the numbers of migrant workers leaving the country for overseas employment have returned to pre-pandemic levels.

With growth averaging 4.5 percent per year over the last decade, Nepal also achieved lower middle-income status in 2020 and is aiming for graduation from Least Development Country status by 2026. Improvements are visible in access to electricity and drinking water, increasing primary and secondary school enrollment, and reducing infant mortality. Also, the advent of federalism has meant that the Nepali people not only saw their lives improved but can also aspire for something greater for their children.

Yet, that’s not the whole story of Nepal’s development over the last decade.

The lack of official data on poverty since 2010 has hindered our collective understanding of whether and how growth has translated into improvements in economic welfare for Nepali households over the last decade.

The economy has also sustained several shocks over this time, including the Gorkha earthquake and fuel crisis in 2015, floods in 2017, landslides, and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.

COVID-19 induced substantial jobs and income losses in Nepal, and the recovery has been unequal and is incomplete. By the end of 2021, close to a fifth of job losses had not been recovered, and women and those in agriculture and lower skill occupations, were recovering more slowly.

This recovery is also taking place within a weak domestic labor market that relies overwhelmingly on informal and subsistence jobs, as well as pre-existing spatial inequalities in access to human capital and limited social assistance for the poor.

The Nepali people are well-known for their resilience, and thankfully so. Vulnerability to shocks – both economic and climate – remains an enduring feature of the country’s development story. As risks from climate change and global economic shocks increase, the livelihoods of ordinary Nepali families will continue to be fragile.

So, to sustain development gains, Nepal’s development path must be inclusive of poor and rural households, adapt to a changing climate, and be responsive to shocks. According to the recent Nepal Climate Change Diagnostic Report , about 80 percent of the population is at risk from natural and climate-induced hazards. And vulnerable communities, particularly poorer households and those relying on subsistence agriculture, as well as remote, mountainous municipalities face the highest risks.

To sustain development gains, Nepal’s development path must be inclusive of poor and rural households, adapt to a changing climate, and be responsive to shocks.

An opportunity to capitalize on the promise of federalism How Nepal responds to these dual challenges of vulnerability and inequality will shape its development storyline. This is because these challenges also present opportunities for shifting the nation’s development investments towards green, resilient, and inclusive growth.

These opportunities are further amplified by the move to federalism. The inherent promise of federalism is the potential for more inclusive and pro-poor governance across the country , through more equitable distribution of resources, greater transparency, and accountability.

The development of a federal data ecosystem that can produce the data needed to inform this transition, and the proactive use of this evidence to design the right policies will therefore be critical to deliver on this promise of improved inclusion and resilience in the country.

Charting the Course After a long gap of 12 years, the fourth Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS-IV) is currently being rolled out in the field. Over the course of a year, 9,600 Nepali households will be interviewed on a range of topics – health, education, jobs, migration, social protection – to provide the data for a much-needed update of Nepal’s poverty statistics, including poverty estimates at the provincial level for the first time.

Thus, the NLSS-IV will provide an evidence baseline for a policy framework to support the fight against poverty and inequality. The World Bank, with the UK Government’s Evidence for Development Program are proud partners of the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) in the implementation of the NLSS IV. Many other development partners are equally engaged and committed to this agenda.

After a long gap of 12 years, the fourth Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS-IV) is currently being rolled out in the field to provide the data for a much-needed update of Nepal’s poverty statistics, including poverty estimates at the provincial level.

The 2015 Constitution also put in place a fundamental shift in Nepal’s data governance architecture, placing local governments at the forefront of date collection, analysis, and reporting. This is a big shift that will take time to be realized as federalism rolls out and takes hold. It will need careful prioritization to design a decentralized data architecture, one that allows for the right data to be generated, transmitted, and used across all three levels of government.

Given that the move from a centralized to a federal system of governance was largely meant to address historical inequalities, it will be critical to ensure that local data systems integrate citizens voices from the start . Such an emphasis can improve the quality of the data and promote participation and accountability within Nepal’s emerging governance system.

Nepal has demonstrated its commitment to address the challenges to inclusive development, including those posed by climate risks. The government and its development partners adopted the Green, Resilient, and Inclusive Development (GRID) approach in 2021.

The government at all levels is taking concrete steps to integrate climate strategies and actions into development policies, programs, and budgets. The recent World Bank Group’s Country Climate and Development Report for Nepal further supports the government’s GRID approach. The end game is to strengthen household and community resilience. Making this happen requires better governance for climate change and disaster risk management.

While federal institutions need to create the right enabling environment and policy frameworks for a green, resilient, and inclusive Nepal, provincial and local governments will be at the forefront taking action – to protect the vulnerable and excluded, to identify and address emerging risks, and to respond in near time to shocks.

And while federal institutions need to create the right enabling environment and policy frameworks for a green, resilient, and inclusive Nepal, provincial and local governments will be at the forefront taking action – to protect the vulnerable and excluded, to identify and address emerging risks, and to respond in near time to shocks.

A concerted effort to strengthen their capacity to use data and evidence to respond to the dual challenges of vulnerability and exclusion could not come at a better time. It also allows the country to engage in regional and global analysis and comparisons of the impacts of climate change and other shocks, an important precursor to taking collective action with other countries. The World Bank is here to support this historic transition.

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ANTHROPOLOGY, SOCIETY AND DEVELOPMENT IN NEPAL: A NATIVE PERSPECTIVE

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Addressing youth aspirations

Nepal is a young country, with about 20 percent of the total population between 16 to 25 years and 40 percent between 16 to 40 years. The country’s demographic dividend can shape its trajectory for decades, and the demographic trend indicates an emergence of a ' youth bulge .' Many developing countries in Latin America and Asia experienced a youth bulge in the 1980s and 1990s while their economies stagnated, generating tens of thousands of unemployed youths. Unfortunately, the current situation of Nepal mirrors a similar trend.

The youth cohort presents challenges and opportunities for the country's development. In parts of the developing world, economic stagnation was also attributed to poor governance that discouraged entrepreneurship and efficient markets. To avoid repeating the negative trends other developing countries went through in the 1980s and 1990s, Nepal must be cautious of a youth bulge and incorporate young people’s hopes, aspirations, challenges, and fears while shaping its development trajectory.

A review of the representation and participation of youth in Nepal over the decades reveals a remarkable increase in involvement and enthusiasm to channel their hopes and aspirations towards the growth and development of the nation. Nepali youth played a monumental role in the resistance movements that ultimately led to the country’s transition from a Hindu monarchy to a federal democratic republic. The 'People’s Movement' showcased the impactful political activism of the youth , highlighting their potential as key agents of change in state-building, embodying hope. This hope has translated into action considerably, evidenced by the increasing interest and participation of youth in development.

Nepal has witnessed a notable shift in recent years, with increased youth participation in political processes and a rise in youth leadership. The 2022 elections were particularly significant, featuring numerous young leaders and 63 newly elected lawmakers under 45. This trend reflects broader efforts to include youth in decision-making and create a more inclusive democracy.

However, there is a simultaneous increase in the fears and frustrations of young Nepalis, despite being acknowledged as social and moral actors and fully-fledged democratic members of society. Meaningful participation and moving beyond mere inclusion remain a struggle. Representation in Nepal’s parliament remains disproportionately lower, at only 5 percent, compared to the global average of 13 percent. Nepali youth also face a staggering unemployment rate of 19 percent , contrasting sharply with the 2.7 percent rate for the entire population. Moreover, youth migrating abroad for work, education, and healthcare exacerbates the lack of youth involvement in sustainable development actions. The mass exodus of the youth deprives Nepal of its skilled workforce and professionals, contributing to human capital flight.

Nepal's political leadership and governance are predominantly led by individuals in their 60s and 70s, posing challenges for young candidates. Age-restrictive protocols in Nepal's legislation hinder youth participation in electoral processes. Eligibility requirements dictate that candidates must be at least 25 years old to contest provincial and federal elections, while participation in constitutional committees requires individuals to be 45 years or older. Bureaucratic hurdles and legal constraints impede youth representation, preventing fresh perspectives, ideas and visions in policy discussions. Additionally, cultural norms and traditional values discourage young women from pursuing higher education and careers outside the home. Structural barriers such as corruption and bureaucratic inefficiencies further inhibit young people from effectively engaging in sustainable development initiatives within the country.

Youth employability is a major challenge in Nepal. Gender gaps in labour market outcomes and political participation persist not only in Nepal but worldwide. In 2022, women comprised less than 40 percent of the labour market and 27 percent of management-level positions globally. In politics, women only comprise about 26 percent of lawmakers globally. Furthermore, the lack of awareness about sustainable development among Nepali youth further compounds these challenges. Labour migration from Nepal is primarily marked by most young, unskilled workers, constituting over 54 percent of the total labour migration. These individuals represent the most susceptible group to displacement and its associated risks.

Despite the potential benefits of remittances , which accounted for about 25 percent of Nepal's GDP in 2023, the loss of skilled and educated young people poses a major challenge to Nepal's development efforts. Moreover, the departure of youth contributes to demographic shifts, with older populations bearing the burden of managing communities. This exodus highlights a systemic challenge: Nepal's youth are ill-equipped for the demands of the modern workforce, requiring immediate action to enhance youth employability.

Nepal's journey towards meaningful youth inclusion requires attention across various fronts. Over 100,000 Nepali youths left the country for employment and education last year alone, resulting in a significant brain drain and a depletion of essential human capital for national development. The staggering 75 percent increase in the outbound study in the last eight years underscores Nepali youths’ hopelessness regarding the lack of desire to stay and contribute to the country’s development. Therefore, urgent action is needed. From facilitating the emergence of young leaders in political spheres to designing policies prioritising youth empowerment, Nepal must address its youth perspectives for development. Strengthening the knowledge ecosystem through investments in education, research, and knowledge-sharing networks is essential for nurturing a skilled and empowered youth populace. Additionally, tapping into the expertise and resources of the Nepali diaspora abroad can further bolster local governance and economic development initiatives.

This is not to say that the Nepal Government isn’t prioritising this issue. For instance, the government has been emphasising strengthening the education system in response to this exponentially increasing mobility abroad of Nepali students. However, despite commendable efforts, including allocating 11 percent of the budget to education, Nepal's education system remains plagued by structural deficiencies and quality issues. Unfortunately, 12 reform cycles in the last 50 years have failed to fully address these challenges, signalling the need to move beyond identification towards effective implementation strategies. Although progress has been made in advancing youth representation and participation, much work needs to be done to bridge existing gaps and remove barriers preventing young people from contributing meaningfully to social, economic, and environmental sustainability.

Globally, recent policy frameworks have increasingly embraced a prevention-focused approach that prioritises youth well-being, social inclusion, and amplification of youth voices. Contrary to misconceptions about youth disengagement, there is a growing recognition of the importance of providing opportunities for young people to participate actively in matters that impact their lives. While concerns persist about declining political engagement among youth globally , there is also an acknowledgement of evolving forms of political participation, presenting avenues for revitalising democratic practices and fostering civic engagement. This is a more optimistic and hopeful narrative that Nepal ought to embrace moving forward.

Though a watered-down version of inclusivity has contributed to a sense of complacency among Nepali youth, driving mass emigration in search of better opportunities abroad, there is also progress in civic engagement and political participation. Ultimately, by adopting a youth-centric approach to development, Nepal can unlock the potential of its youth population, creating an enabling environment that not only acknowledges the value of youth inclusion but actively facilitates their meaningful participation. As Nepal navigates its development journey, harnessing the energy and hopes of its youth is integral to sustainably realising development aspirations.

Divya Rana Divya Rana obtained her master’s in Development Studies with a specialization in Medical Anthropology from Geneva Graduate Institute in Switzerland. She is currently working as a Program Officer at IIDS, Nepal.

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Home > Books > Tourism - From Empirical Research Towards Practical Application

Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development of Nepal

Submitted: 04 October 2015 Reviewed: 27 January 2016 Published: 04 May 2016

DOI: 10.5772/62308

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Ecotourism helps in environmental protection, wildlife conservation, poverty alleviation and socio-economic development. It affects environmental, social and economic components of the community and the whole country. It has different forms which are named according to the preference of the country. Developed as well as developing countries , such as Nepal, are promoting ecotourism for sustainable development of the nation. Different methodologies are applied throughout the world by different researchers for assessing ecotourism. This chapter focuses on review of ecotourism researches throughout the world. It has both positive and negative impacts on environmental, social and economic aspects of the country. Due to the high rate of beneficial impacts, it is helping in the overall development of the community, country and the whole world. There is need of cooperation among different stakeholders, training of ecotourism to tourism entrepreneurs and appropriate management policy for sustainable implementation of ecotourism projects.

environmental conservation
economic enhancement
social development

Author Information

Anup k. c. *.

Nepal Electricity Authority, Environment and Social Studies Department, Kathmandu, Nepal

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Ecotourism is one of the fastest growing segments of the sustainable tourism industry [ 1 – 3 ], which focuses on wildlife conservation, environmental protection, poverty alleviation and economic development [ 4 , 5 ]. Hector Ceballos Lascurain coined the term, “Ecotourism” in 1983 to describe the nature-based travel to relatively undisturbed area with an emphasis on education [ 1 ]. There is no such universally accepted definition of ecotourism. It is differentiated from nature-based tourism as it helps in sustainable rural development and makes biodiversity conservation economically viable for local communities [ 2 ]. Ecotourism is one of the preferred tools for conservation and community development in many rural areas. Its effectiveness depends in its potential to provide local economic benefits by maintaining ecological resource integrity through low-impact and non-consumptive use of local resources [ 6 ].

Ecotourism is an alternative form of tourism which embraces tourism in the biophysical environment in natural areas. It incorporates ecologically sustainable activities, conservation supporting measures and involvement of local communities [ 7 ]. It neoliberalises nature and focuses on capitalist development, community development, poverty alleviation, wildlife conservation and environmental protection [ 4 ]. Traditional economic bases like agriculture, livestock and hunting are not compatible with protected territories so change in traditional economic activities can be done by shifting cultural attitudes [ 8 ], towards ecotourism enhancement [ 9 ].

Ecotourism provide jobs for the local people and a market for local products. It encourages cultural sensitivity in guest–host relations and acts as a catalyst for ecologically sustainable development. But, planning is required to address the issues of ownership, management and coordination of protected areas. It enhances wildlife conservation and equitable sharing of benefits from ecotourism [ 10 ]. It helps in the conservation of natural, cultural and built resources and maintains the quality of life of local area [ 11 ]. With an objective of environmental conservation, it creates sustainable economic development and balances the conflicting goals of economic development and biodiversity conservation [ 2 , 5 , 12 ]. Considering the sustainable principles and practices, it fulfills goals of biodiversity conservation, poverty reduction and business viability [ 13 ]. In ecotourism, local people realize the importance of conservation and protect the environment in active manner. They maintain national standards of atmospheric quality, sound quality, drinking water, sewage, lampblack and all kinds of establishments [ 14 ].

1.1. Different forms of ecotourism

Community-based ecotourism is the best option in an area which is conserved, owned and managed by a community to gain income by operating a tourism enterprise [ 1 ]. There will be direct and indirect participants and beneficiaries looking after environmental conservation, business enterprise and community development [ 1 ]. Local income, biodiversity conservation and cultural preservation are necessary for tourism intervention in such areas. Successful implementation of such ecotourism requires improvement of accessibility, liberalization of pricing policy, empowerment of community, development of tourism facilities and incorporation of nature-based tourism products [ 15 ]. Community-based ecotourism is associated with basic accommodation and facilities marketed for independent and low-budget travelers who do not expect high-end tourism facilities. There is high degree of public participation but sometimes exclude interests of communities and benefits narrow elite. Wildlife and landscapes are sold in multiple ways as images, products and destinations in such tourism [ 4 ].

Ecosystem tourism is supply-led tourism strategy that enables sustainable development with the central theme of ecosystem integrity. It does not exclude tourist and commercial exploitation of the ecosystem but the entire ecosystems or the specific biological diversity are managed in relation to the tourism experience. The main resource base or capital stock for tourists is the ecosystem which is the assemblages of organisms, physical environment and an array of interactions and feedbacks. In such ecotourism, the ecosystem is able to absorb or adapt the pressures of tourists until it develops a more urban character [ 16 ].

Rural tourism is a form of tourism originated in Europe which takes place in rural environment based on the rural resources reflecting rurality, traditional folkcustom and agricultural products. In such tourism, tourists enjoy staying in the yard, strolling and looking around flowers, green plants, gardens, old architecture and playing cards. It enhances the profit from agriculture and provides peasantry with more profit, more employment opportunities and better living conditions by combining agriculture and tourism. It plays a positive role in prompting the development of rural economy and rural culture. Rural tourism is in a primary stage by giving priority to agricultural sightseeing, farming experience and close quarters leisure with accommodations and simple entertainment [ 14 ].

Cultural tourism preserves cultural traditions and enriches the quality of the life of local communities. It is necessary to provide education and training programs of ecotourism and nature reserve for tourism operators, employees and tourist to develop and promote minority cultures and cultural traditions. Research opportunities should be provided to attract scientists and students to conduct research in the region [ 17 ].

Nature-based tourism is a large growing global industry which depends upon the natural environment occurring in parks and protected areas. It depends on appropriate levels of environment quality and suitable levels of consumer service. Nature-based tourism has been a key component of tourism industry in several countries [ 18 ].

1.2. Ecotourism in global and national scenario

Protected area-based tourism in parks and protected areas constitute a significant proportion of international tourism in developing countries. It has generated substantial revenue for the state and improved the local livelihoods which are directly dependent on tourism. Many state governments and international conservation agencies provide sufficient funds for the establishment of protected areas and their long-term viability. Countries such as Kenya, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Costa Rica and Nepal are only a few examples where protected area tourism constitutes a significant proportion of international tourism [ 11 ].

There is nature-based tourism in Australia, Tanzania and New Zealand. The national ecotourism strategy for Australia had focused on ecotourism in regional areas to generate foreign exchange earnings, employment, and other economic and social benefits. For the aggressive and successful policy development in the country, Australia is taking advantage with its spectacular and diverse natural features, unique flora and fauna, and diverse cultural heritage [ 18 ].

After the coronation of 1974 in Bhutan, small groups of tourists were allowed into the country and given permission to visit dzongs and goembas in Thimphu and Paro. Government established a quota of 200 tourists a year in which tourist have to travel in a group of six or more. The cost was set at US$130 per day and all the guests had to stay in government-approved hotels, guesthouses and lodges. Bhutan’s rich heritage and vibrant culture has its distinctive traditions and customs demonstrated in its religious festivals and architecture. Towering crags and highly diverse forests is also home to takin, snow leopard, golden langur, red panda, tiger and elephant. Trained trekking guides are provided periodic knowledge and services to accompany trekking groups. Gross expenditure of US$14 million provides significant foreign exchange earnings in Bhutan. The present policy consists of a fixed price set by government with quality of service and visitor experience maintained by market share competition between tour operators and government regulation. Ecotourism in Bhutan was able to limit environmental and cultural impact of Western countries. But, a large number of Indian tourists would cause a major challenge in maintaining cultural and environmental carrying capacity [ 19 ].

In Small Islands of the South Dodecanese, local communities contribute in ecotourism program and help to minimize the conflicts. The islands’ geomorphology and geographic position provides opportunity in nature trekking, mountain climbing and sailing. It contributes to the elongation of the tourist period and the increase in tourist revenues. Adverse ecological effects of adventure tourism activities such as underwater fishing by free-divers are negligible [ 20 ].

Ecotourism is already the largest source of foreign exchange in countries like Costa Rica and Guatemala. It is one of the meaningful sources of economic development and job creation. Cross country evidence demonstrates that tourism is labor intensive and offers a variety of small scale opportunities creating jobs for poor, women, young and indigenous communities [ 1 ].

Community-based ecotourism in southern Thailand is only partially successful. The benefits of ecotourism in Phuket are more than the costs in terms of community development. Environmental sensitivity and responsibility promoted by ecotourism can increase the political, economic, social and environmental interests of host communities. The relationship between community-based ecotourism and empowerment is complex and incomplete. The economic and psychological empowerment of individuals is accomplished by the political and social empowerment of communities [ 21 ]. Tourism operators in countryside of Thailand had also focused in nature-based tourism [ 11 ].

In Kuscenneti National Park of Turkey, the park administration encouraged local bodies to organize youth camps in the park along with some additional facilities. By allowing nearby communities to provide infrastructure and services to visitors, visitor expenditures are able to flow more easily into the local economy. Locals have positive views towards tourism development and have established some restaurants and guest houses. These activities have provided sources of extra income for families who depend on traditional activities. Economic benefits of tourism have changed the attitudes of local communities and there is good relationship between the national park and the local community [ 22 ].

Tourism in Kerala was promoted as a major agenda by government for employment opportunities and foreign exchange earnings. Accommodation industry provides more subsidies, tax cuts, concessions, promotional packages and soaps which contributes to the growth and development of the economy. In spite of the positive benefit to the economy, tourism projects have adverse environmental effects [ 23 ].

Implementation of Sitakunda Botanical Garden and Eco-park project in Chittagong, Bangladesh, had enriched the area with natural regeneration, new plantations, infrastructure development, new destination for visitors and nature-based tourism. Tourism is also providing revenue to the park authority and income to local people [ 24 ].

Tourism had provided alternative mechanism of resource utilization in China’s nature reserves but it is causing adverse impact on environmental resources. Litter problems, water pollution, noise pollution and air pollution are the major problem occurring in nature reserves [ 25 ]. Local government officials had a great role for conservation, development and logistical functions towards tourism development in Wuzhishan Mountain Region of China. Participation of local communities and cooperation between local governments, local communities, NGOs and the private sector was important for development and management of the nature reserve [ 17 ].

Lugu Lake region is one of the most important areas for ecosystem conservation and cultural heritage protection in China [ 26 ]. Shangri-La County in China has abundant tourism resources and products but the natural resources were exploited beyond the carrying capacity. There is need for sustainable use of tourism resources, proper handling of tourism demands, repartitioning tourism flow and digital system for tourism management [ 27 ]. Appropriate measures by government were conducted in Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve (XBR) to protect the core area from over-exploitation and unsustainable human use. But, simple life and material needs of traditional local people is vulnerable to Western influence [ 28 ]. Visitors as a knowledge seeker, leisure traveler and nature lover are preferring good-quality information, tour guides and low impact activities. They are selecting the destination with high ecological value and good site management in the case of Hong Kong [ 29 ].

1.3. Ecotourism in Nepal

Ecotourism as a component of green economy contributes greatly for Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for government and private organizations [ 30 ]. Developing countries such as Nepal have advantage in ecotourism as they have unique natural environment and culture. It generates employment for the unskilled workforce in rural area through community-led tourism activities for preserving natural ecosystems [ 3 ].

Nepal is a small country with an area of 147,181 sq. km., having great diversity of topographic and eco-climatic features rich in natural and cultural heritage. It is renowned for its physiographic and eco-climatic variations, Himalayan ranges, natural beauty, protected areas, rich bio-diversity, spectacular landscape, extraordinary cultural heritage and mosaic of ethnic diversity [ 31 ]. It is one of the most adventurous cultural and ecotourism destinations in the world which depends on the quality of the natural environment [ 11 , 32 ]. Its main attractions are the highest mountain range in the world and many cultural and natural attractions [ 32 ]. There are many trekking routes and sites for ecotourists to explore natural beauty throughout Nepal ranging from the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area and Illam in the east to Khaptad and Shuklaphanta National Park in the west [ 5 ].

Nepal has a total population of over 23 million and consists of 59 ethnic groups and 101 spoken languages. It is the birthplace of Lord Buddha, the Light of Asia. It has a rich cultural heritage, where more than 1250 heritage sites have been identified and documented from 72 districts. Within Kathmandu valley, Kathmandu Development Committee has listed a total of 870 religious and cultural shrines and monuments. It consists of eight World Cultural Heritage Sites: Bhaktapur, Patan and Kathmandu Durbar Squares; Swayambhunath; Baudhanath; Pashupatinath; Changunarayan and Lumbini (the birth place of Lord Buddha) combined with two world’s Natural Heritage Sites: Sagarmatha and Chitwan National Parks [ 31 ].

These resources are the major attractions for the foundation and acceleration of tourism industry in Nepal. It is necessary to manage these tourism resources properly by mobilizing the local participation with sufficient considerations on the quality of supply side of tourism in order to attract the maximum number of tourists from different parts of the world. Nepal is one of the countries that receive the largest number of international tourists with rapid growth of tourism [ 31 ]. Trekking and mountaineering are creating opportunities in the operation of tea houses and lodges along the trails [ 33 ], which has direct impact on livelihoods [ 5 , 34 – 37 ]. Nepal Government has also identified ecotourism as a strong sector contributing significantly to environmental conservation, employment generation and socioeconomic development [ 38 ].

Community-based rural tourism in protected areas had supported livelihood of local communities by providing opportunities to the national and international visitors in community activities [ 11 , 38 ]. So, Nepalese government has developed national parks, wild life reserves, buffer zones, conservation areas and cultural heritage sites for conserving wildlife and enhancing ecotourism [ 39 ]. Ecotourists enjoy its Himalayan ranges, natural beauty, protected areas, biodiversity, landscape, cultural heritage and ethnic diversity [ 31 ]. Having 8 out of the 14 high mountains over 8000 m elevation in the world is also making Nepal a main source of tourist attraction [ 32 ]. Tourism had already been an alternative source of income generation in the villages of Kaski, Tanahu, Syangja, Lamjung and Gorkha districts in Western Nepal through rural tourism initiatives [ 5 , 38 ].

Tourist can enjoy scenic beauty, trek and Climb Mountains, view Sagarmatha and encounter wilderness in Sagarmatha National Park (SNP). Ecotourism and its sustainability in SNP require the inclusion of local participation, economic viability, education dissemination, tourist satisfaction and tourism impact reduction [ 32 ].

Annapurna region is one of the world's most popular trekking destinations which comprises a variety of ecosystems from sub-tropical lowlands and temperate forest to some of the world's highest alpine peaks [ 7 ]. To save the region’s biological diversity from growing environmental crisis, conservation area was set up handling management by government to National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), formerly King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (KMTNC) [ 11 ]. Considering local people as a custodian of natural and cultural heritage, participatory natural resources conservation method was implemented for making project financially sustainable [ 11 ]. With a goal to lessen the adverse impacts and strengthen the positive benefits of tourism, bottom up approach based on local management was implemented in Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) [ 7 ]. While trekking through Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), visitors can enjoy hiking, mountaineering, viewing wildlife and visiting cultural sites, ethnic museums and natural photography [ 39 ]. For this, ACAP collect entry fees from international tourist for community development projects on health and sanitation, education, environmental protection, etc. [ 11 ]. Also, to increase community ownership and participation, management committees have been formed which enhance ecotourism for conservation and development activities by implementing fuel-efficient stoves, back boilers, kerosene and electricity [ 5 , 7 ].

Homestays in Barpak, Nepal, are helpful in addressing socioeconomic, political, ethnic and gender disparities. They have experienced cleaner pathways, yards and junctions with shops full of a variety of cleaner products, water taps and public toilets [ 38 ].

Total number of tourist arrival in Nepal in 2012, 2013 and 2014 was 803,092, 797,616 and 790,118, respectively. Annual growth rate of tourists during these years was 9.1, -0.70 and -0.95 and their average length of stay was 12.16, 12.51 and 12.44, respectively. But from 2009 to 2012, annual growth rate of tourist and average length of stay was in increasing trend. Out of total tourist arrival in Nepal, 57.8 percent tourist arrives for the purpose of holiday in 2011 and this trend decreases to 47.3 percent in 2012. In 2013, tourist arriving for the purpose of holiday was again increased to 51.5 percent. The arrival of tourist for trekking and mountaineering, business, pilgrimage, official and other purpose was 12.8, 3.5, 9.0, 4.7 and 6.8 percent, respectively in 2013 [ 40 ].

2. Methodological issues of ecotourism

Different studies are conducted to assess the issues of ecotourism. There is a need to find out the issues raised in these researches and find out the methodologies applied by them. It would help the researchers to find the subject of research with appropriate methodology. It would be easier and faster to select appropriate literature for them. This part of the chapter reviews the location, aim and methodology of different researches throughout the world.

2.1. Challenges of ecotourism

Nianyong and Zhuge [ 25 ] conducted a study in China’s nature reserves to assess the opportunities and challenges of ecotourism. Questionnaire survey was implemented between July and December 1997 to identify broad issues on ecotourism development in China’s nature reserves.

Schellhorn [ 41 ] conducted a study in Indonesian Island of Lombok to understand the constraints and barriers of ecotourism in indigenous communities with the help of census survey of the local hospitality sector, semi-structured interviews with local tourism stakeholders, participant observations and analytical mapping of tourism infrastructure and services.

Bertella [ 42 ] conducted a study in Norway with an objective to assess the challenges and the critical factors for the development and management of wildlife tourism based on the knowledge of natural sciences. The study was conducted with the help of secondary data from the internet and primary data through informal conversations and semi-structured interviews with the firm leader in June and August 2009.

Becken and Clapcott [ 43 ] conducted a study in Fiji and New Zealand with the help of a research to make appropriate policy to cope with impacts of climate change. Stakeholders of climate change, tourism and both the field were involved in policy-making process.

2.2. Impacts of ecotourism

Okello [ 44 ] conducted a research in Kuku Community Conservation Area (KCCA) in Kenya to assess ethical, ecological, economic and management issues at community level with the help of semi-structured questionnaire to visitors and tour companies.

Degang and Xiaoting [ 14 ] conducted a study in Nongke Village of Chengdu City to assess the concepts and criteria of rural tourism and ecotourism with the help of field work, small-scaled informal discussion, unstructured interviews and data from local tourism management.

Genzong et al. [ 17 ] conducted a research in Wuzhishan Mountain Region of China to identify the information that incorporates ecotourism related values. Sixty-seven questionnaires were administered to assess how the local government officials saw the development of tourism as an important priority in the region through four phases: profiling the community, analyzing trends, creating the vision, and developing an action plan.

Hitchner et al. [ 45 ] conducted a study in Kelabit Highlands of Sarawak, Malaysia, and the Kerayan Highlands of Kalimantan, Indonesia to examine the current state of community-based transboundary ecotourism. The study was conducted with the help of interviews with local guides, homestay owners, urban-based tour operators, tourism promotion centers and agencies; intercommunity dialogues regarding transboundary ecotourism and analysis of promotional materials on ecotourism; comments in the visitors’ books of lodges, tourists’ websites and travel blogs.

Beaumont [ 46 ] conducted a study to identify ecotourists’ environmental concern for sustainability in Australia. For this, 243 respondents having ecotourism experience were surveyed based on the nature and learning criteria of previous segmentation studies. Pro-environmental attitudes were measured as an indication of their sustainability.

Zhuang et al. [ 47 ] conducted a study in Laojunshan area of Northwestern Yunnan Province in Western China to examine an ecotourism demonstration project. They analyzed the strengths and weaknesses of the primary actors such as government, private business, NGO, and local people to evaluate the potential for the development of ecotourism in the current institutional environment in China. In the first stage, government documents and GEI reports from the Laojunshan Ecotourism Project were reviewed to develop a guide for semi-structured interviews. Key stakeholders from different institutions were identified in collaboration with GEI staff. Field interviews were conducted by the first author using a fairly open framework for focused conversations with a core set of questions. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis and an analytical hierarchy process (AHP) were used to analyze the data.

K.C. et al. [ 5 ] conducted a study in the Ghandruk Village Development Committee of Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal to assess the impacts of ecotourism on environmental conservation, social and cultural heritage preservation, economic development and enhancement of livelihoods. Two hundred and forty two households were interviewed, followed by three focus group discussions and five key informant interviews.

2.2.1. Environmental impacts of ecotourism

Obua [ 48 ] conducted a study to assess the environmental impacts of recreation on camping sites and nature trails in Kibale National Park in Uganda. Nine physical parameters were assessed in camping sites and four parameters on nature trails of the national park.

Kelkit et al. [ 9 ] conducted a study in Kazdagi (Mt. Ida) National Park, Turkey to assess tourism activities sensitive to the environment and spread ecotourism by protecting biological species in Turkey and neighboring countries. Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat analysis of the Park was done to derive strategic proposals for future development.

Winson [ 49 ] conducted an empirical case study to examine efforts on the Island of Cuba to establish environmentally sensitive and sustainable tourism. The study was conducted with face-to-face interviews with key informants from semi-autonomous agencies organizing eco-tours, personnel at government ministries, management personnel involved in ecotourism and government park managers involved with tourism operations.

Ballantyne and Pickering [ 50 ] conducted a scoping assessment to identify the loss of orchids by tourism activity in the wild by directly collecting, habitat clearance and trampling and indirectly by weeds, pathogens and climate change using data on Australian threatened orchids.

Coghlan [ 51 ] assessed the relationships between natural resource management and tour operators’ inputs and outputs with the help of quantitative and secondary data collection methods. Input data were collected from a variety of secondary sources whereas output data were collected through 4800 surveys of reef visitors from November 2006 to December 2008. Analysis of data was carried in SPSS 16.

2.2.2. Social impacts of ecotourism

Maikhuri et al. [ 52 ] conducted a study in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, India with the help of detailed household survey and interviews with buffer zone villages to collect information on socio-economic conditions and population structure.

Clifton and Benson [ 53 ] conducted a study to identify the nature and causes of socio-cultural impacts of ecotourism from Indonesia with the help of semi structured interviews with local residents and ecotourists.

Dicken [ 54 ] conducted a study in Pondoland Marine Protected Area, South Africa to assess the recreational aspects of the boat-based tourism industry focused on the sardine run and estimate the economic value to the local communities with the help of face to face questionnaire survey.

Gezon [ 55 ] conducted a study in Ankarana protected area, Madagascar using a qualitative and longitudinal approach focusing on the social impacts of tourist intensification by comparing and contrasting communities nearby the protected area.

2.2.3. Economic impacts of ecotourism

Brunet et al. [ 19 ] conducted a study in Bhutan to assess the relationship of tourism, development, culture and environment. Primary data was collected through field visit, participant observation and interviews with stakeholders while secondary data was collected from electronic and printed texts.

Maroudas and Kyriakaki [ 20 ] conducted a study in two small islands of Dodecanese to describe and assess the relations and interactions between local development and ecotourism.

Boxill and Severin [ 56 ] conducted an exploratory study on tourism development and its impact on the caribs of Dominica.

Silva and McDill [ 57 ] conducted a study in Pennsylvania and Maryland in the United States to compare agency and business perspectives on barriers affecting ecotourism suppliers. Data were collected through forty five face to face key informant interviews with business owners, tour operators and outfitters, state and local government personnel, natural resource managers working on public lands and conservation leaders.

Nath and Alauddin [ 24 ] conducted a study in Sitakunda Botanical Garden and Eco-park, Chittagong, Bangladesh to assess the impact of park in rural community. Socio-economic survey, personal observations, informal discussion and key informant interviews was conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire with visitor and park managers.

Duffy [ 4 ] conducted a study in Madagascar to observe the development of ecotourism in the wider debates of neoliberalism and commodification of nature. Thirty six semi-structured interviews with key interest groups involved with environmental policymaking were conducted during a two months of fieldwork in Madagascar in 2004.

Lacher and Nepal [ 58 ] conducted a study to document and examine local-level strategies employed to reduce leakages of tourism revenue in three peripheral regions of Northern Thailand. The study was conducted between October and December 2006 by conducting informal interviews with tourism entrepreneurs, local tourist guides, village officials and village headman.

Zambrano et al. [ 59 ] conducted a study in Osa Peninsula of Costa Rica to assess social and environmental effects of ecotourism. The study was conducted with the help of socioeconomic data from owners, operators, managers, team leaders and locals gathered during the field work from June–August 2005.

Gallagher and Hammerschlag [ 60 ] conducted a study to examine the distribution, frequency and economic value of shark based ecotourism. In 83 locations of 8 geographic regions, 376 shark ecotour operations were identified. A socioeconomic case study of shark tourism in South Africa was conducted from October to November 2010 by taking information on customer served and cost per trip. Consumptive and non-consumptive values of shark resources was compared and discussed. The relative economic importance of shark-based tourism at global scale and potential implications of the industry was evaluated.

Amati [ 30 ] conducted a study in Kimana Community Wildlife Sanctuary, Kenya to explore individual and household experiences of long-term participation with the help of in-depth interviews, a survey, participant observation and secondary data.

Wood et al. [ 61 ] evaluated sustainability of behavioral changes associated with the agreements and development activities supported by the grants and identified determinants of success and lessons in around Kerinci Seblat National Park in Indonesia. They conducted focus-group discussions with village leaders, farmers and others involved in the ICDP and semi structured interviews with villagers, park staffs and local NGO representatives and District Head’s office in three Districts.

Acharya and Halpenny [ 38 ] conducted a study in Barpak, Gorkha, Nepal, to assess the role of homestay tourism in sustainable community development. The study was analyzed through community-based action research and evaluation methodologies. The primary information was generated through ethnographic observations and semi-structured interviews with politicians, social workers, officials, members of youth clubs, NGO workers and women from the homestay households.

K.C. and Thapa Parajuli [ 36 ] conducted a study in Manaslu conservation area (MCA) in Gorkha district of Nepal to assess the impact of ecotourism on livelihood of local people. Seventy-six household surveys, three focus group discussions and five key informant interviews were conducted to get the primary information. Graphical, correlation and regression analysis was carried out for analysis of collected information.

2.3. Visitors attitude towards ecotourism

Stem et al. [ 6 ] conducted a study in Costa Rica to assess ecotourism benefits, impacts and its potential for promoting conservation and community development with the help of semi-structured individual and group interviews and direct observation.

Puhakka and Siikamaki [ 62 ] examines nature tourists’ environmental values and perceptions of ecolabels in PAN Parks certified Oulanka National Park in northeastern Finland. The method includes 273 surveys, 212 to Finnish tourists and 61 questionnaires by foreign tourists of 13 European and 3 other countries.

Cheung and Jim [ 29 ] conducted a study in four remote ecotourism hot spots in Hong Kong to understand the resource base and visitor attitude and expectation. The study was conducted with the help of 456 questionnaire surveys with visitors to evaluate the preferences of ecotourism services.

With an objective to identify the local tourism resources and calculate the ecotourism carrying capacity, Shi et al. [ 27 ] conducted a study in Shangri-La County in China. The information related to ecotourism related aspects and a resource was gathered with the help of seminars, randomized surveys and consultations with local authorities between September and October 2011.

Nepal [ 63 ] conducted a study to find the areas of satisfaction and concerns that tourists expressed on their stay in the lodges of Annapurna Conservation Area and its effect on their total ecotourism experience. The study was conducted in May 2004 for a period of three weeks based on on-site exit interviews with 130 trekkers in the Annapurna region by in-depth qualitative discussions.

Baral et al. [ 39 ] conducted a study in Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA), Nepal to evaluate ecotourism and rate their level of satisfaction from their ecotourism experience. For this, a sample of 315 international visitors were surveyed in April and May of 2006 in Ghorepani. Statistically valid and reliable confirmatory factor analysis ecotourism evaluation scale containing seven items was applied to assess visitors’ perceptions of the socio-economic and environmental outcomes of ecotourism.

2.4. Role of local guide in ecotourism

Black et al. [ 64 ] conducted a study on range of Ecotour guide training in less developed countries with the help of literature review and emailed questionnaire survey to 240 individuals. The research was based on training models, program aims, structure and content of existing training, trainers and trainees assessment methods and program evaluation.

Ormsby and Mannle [ 65 ] conducted a study in Masoala National Park, Madagascar focusing on ecotourism benefits and the role of local guides in promoting conservation awareness with the help of interviews, participant observation, and archival research to park’s guide association and residents.

Serenari et al. [ 66 ] conducted a study in Garhwal, Uttarakhand from May-June, 2009 with a goal to predict guides’ intentions on environmentally significant behaviors on their expeditions in Garhwal. The study was conducted with the help of 68 questionnaires by snowball sampling to guides and visiting adventure tour companies, guide agencies and storefronts.

2.5. Ecotourism certification

Matysek and Kriwoken [ 67 ] conducted a study to assess the nature and ecotourism program in Tasmania with the help of in-depth structured interviews with a key informant group of operators, industry representatives, government officials and academics. A qualitative research was conducted on an individual and personalized basis.

Catibog-Sinha and Wen, [ 28 ] conducted a study in Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve (XBR), South China to assess the importance of effective tourism planning and management through the integration of the social, economic and environmental goals. The study focuses on the planning stage of the 7Es model, Environment, Economics, Enforcement, Experience, Engagement, Enquiry and Education.

Chung [ 68 ] conducted a study in Hong Kong to assess the problem of implementing international ecotourism certification at local level with the help of face-to-face interviews, tele-interviews and mailed-questionnaires. The views of stakeholders on international certification for ecotourism in Hong Kong were diversified.

Deng et al. [ 69 ] conducted a study in West Virginia to create a point evaluation system to rate and rank forest-based ecotourism areas in West Virginia, USA based on input from academics and ecotourism operators using the Delphi method. It involved one hundred ecotourism academics and sixty one ecotourism operators. Twelve criteria having several indicators were pre-identified from the literature while criteria and associated indicators in the second round were redesigned to reflect the destination conditions and the destination management.

Deng and Selin [ 70 ] conducted a study for the development of a point evaluation system for ecotourism destinations. It involves first round of panel discussion for generation of ideas and the second round for ranking and scoring of measurement items.

Different issues of ecotourism were raised by different researchers throughout the world. Issues such as challenges to ecotourism, impacts of ecotourism focusing on environmental aspects, social aspects and economic aspects, visitors attitude towards ecotourism, role of local guide in ecotourism and ecotourism certification were raised by the researchers. Primary and secondary sources of information were analyzed by researchers through literature reviews, questionnaire survey, semi structured interviews, key informant interviews, participant observation, Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats’ (SWOT) analysis and qualitative researches. This chapter identified location, objectives and methodologies implemented in the ecotourism researches. Methodologies implemented by different researchers were quiet similar but the objectives and study area were different.

3. Ecotourism and its role in sustainable development

Infrastructures for tourism have given many benefits for local residents [ 14 ]. The ecotourism industry is taken as the driving force to accelerate the socio-economic development, change the traditional growth patterns and construct a harmonious and environment-friendly society [ 71 ]. Ecotourism and its impacts on environmental aspects, social aspects and economic aspects throughout the world are described briefly in this part of the chapter with the help of literature review of the researches on impacts of ecotourism.

3.1. Environmental impacts

3.1.1. positive impacts.

Ecotourism is supply led tourism strategy that enables sustainable development with the central theme of ecosystem integrity. It is dictated by the ability of the ecosystem to absorb the impacts but does not exclude the tourist and commercial exploitation of the ecosystem. Ecotourism does not set limits on tourist numbers from the notion of carrying capacity but only controls the nature and extent of their activity [ 16 ]. Atmospheric quality, sound quality, drinking water, sewage, lampblack and all kinds of establishments should meet the relative ordains of the national standards of environmental conservation [ 14 ].

It has significant potential to generate direct community benefits from conservation. It protects the environment, saves unique species and helps to earn money from tourists [ 65 ]. Parks helps in combining conservation and development through a program to bring tourism benefits to local committees [ 65 ]. Commercial hiking and trekking encourage development where guest facilities and businesses are located [ 41 ]. Local people realize the importance of conservation and protect the environment actively [ 14 ]. Conservation of nature attracts tourist and provide high level of satisfaction by exploring the nature and provide partnerships between protected area managers and tourism operators [ 51 ]. Forest coverage rate can be increased which provide solid foundation for developing ecotourism [ 71 ]. Ecotourism emphasized the protection of natural resources and biological diversity during the tourism development. It also requires maintaining the sustainability of resource use and transforming the advantages of regional tourism resources into industrial and economic advantages [ 71 ].

Ecotourism positively influence conservation near protected areas and decreases deforestation and hunting rate. Alternative ecotourism provide economic benefits and discourage the conversion of forest to agricultural and pastoral land. Resource management and financial components play a great role in conservation. Its attractiveness rests in its potential to provide local economic benefits while also maintaining ecological resource integrity through low-impact and non-consumptive use of local resources. Ecotourism has pushed its way to the forefront as one of the preferred tools for conservation and community development in many rural areas [ 6 ].

Ecotourism is a strategy that has been used to create sustainable economic development, while pursuing conservation objectives. It is a tool that may balance the conflicting goals of economic development and biodiversity conservation [ 2 ]. It is developed for the benefit of communities and for conservation activities [ 4 ]. In ecotourism, natural resources are not threatened and local people are encouraged in park protection. Rich natural resources are protected together with the recreational and tourist potential which creates a center of attraction [ 9 ]. Ecotourism project enriches the area with natural regeneration, new plantations, infrastructure development and new destination for visitors and nature-based tourism [ 24 ].

Ecotourism has a positive impact on education, job training, hunting, and deforestation [ 59 ]. There is also positive benefit to flora and fauna [ 49 ]. It is able to limit environmental and cultural impact of Western countries [ 19 ]. By encouraging both ecological sustainability and grassroots development, community-based ecotourism hope that the environmental sensitivity and responsibility promoted by ecotourism can serve the political, economic, social and environmental interests of host communities [ 21 ]. Ecotourism supplies real experiences of natural environments [ 16 ]. Environmentally and culturally sensitive ecotourism programs can play a key role in justifying the rationale for the existence, maintenance and future benefits of protected areas worldwide. They may also serve to mediate conflict by explaining to local residents the purpose of conservation and the roles of park personnel, and can be a means of strengthening park staff’s community visibility and credibility [ 65 ]. It is an excellent solution to increased tourists and increased degradation to natural areas [ 72 ].

Concentration of ecotourism services within a region can marginalize neighboring human communities without causing environmental degradation. Multi-sector planning efforts can maximize profits, distribute benefits equitably and minimize adverse environmental impacts as tourist numbers increase [ 55 ]. The environment-friendly characteristic of ecotourism not only brings more economic benefits but also has notable ecological benefits [ 71 ].

3.1.2. Negative impacts

Tourism is an industrial activity that exerts a series of impacts that are similar to most other industrial activities. It consumes scarce resources, produces waste by-products and requires specific infrastructure and superstructure to support it [ 73 ]. Ineffective management of tourism causes negative impact on protected area resources [ 18 ]. It provides an alternative mechanism of resource utilization which may bring adverse impact on environmental resources. Litter problems had occurred in 44% of the nature reserves, water pollution in 12%, noise pollution in 11% and air pollution in 3% of the nature reserves in China [ 25 ]. Camping sites felt environmental degradation in both wet and dry seasons but more in dry season. Environmental degradation is a common problem which increases with increase in visitor number in a protected area open to recreational use [ 48 ].

Camping and caravanning zones will add increased levels of pollution to the nearby river [ 9 ]. The ecosystem may become less stable and local pollution may have drastic effects, such as fish kills [ 16 ]. Ecotourism will require more space for tourists and increased clearing of land [ 72 ]. Farmers’ extensive farming methods can bring some negative effects, such as sharp drop of forest, vegetation damage, desertification and soil erosion [ 71 ]. Successful ecotourism initiatives may draw increasing interest and a correspondingly higher number of tourists, thus intensifying negative impacts such as solid waste generation, habitat disturbance, and trail erosion. Such impacts could seriously threaten the resources upon which ecotourism depends [ 6 ].

3.2. Social impacts

3.2.1. positive impacts.

The social impacts of tourism are minimal but are largely positive [ 56 ]. The growth of tourism led to migration of people to the area [ 41 ]. Guest houses provide food and beverages and are located along the main access route to the National Park [ 41 ]. Economic benefits of tourism are successful to stop political opposition to economically unviable and environmentally harmful tourism projects [ 23 ].

The local residents show traditional hospitality and their honest folkway in spite of the modernization. The traditional culture has been strengthened in the course of economic development [ 14 ]. Ecotourism operators may organize cultural tours with different community groups to ensure experience of both the tourists and community members [ 6 ]. The rich culture of the neighborhood can be introduced to visitors [ 9 ]. For sustainable ecotourism, lodges should behave as good neighbors to the local people and visitors [ 6 ]. Tourism is conducive to the social stability and harmony [ 71 ].

Ecotourism offers diverse products and services that can be categorized as both a service and an experience. Ecotourism sites, such as historic houses or theme parks, are primarily consumed for their experiential/ emotional dimensions, which is more a representation of consumption of service experiences rather than relating to their functional properties. Thus, the psychological benefits gained by ecotourists are deemed more relevant and important in this context [ 74 ]. There is no conflict between development of planting and conservation of environment. The development of rural tourism provides the villagers with second revenue [ 14 ].

3.2.2. Negative impacts

Tourism intervention has the potential to promote social conflict and challenge cultural values [ 15 ]. It may results in conflicts between the locals and government authorities [ 52 ]. There is increase in alcoholism, drug addiction and prostitution as a result of tourism [ 59 ]. Foreign cultures brought by tourists have an impact on local traditional and plain cultures [ 71 ]. Due to tourism, traditional local people having simple life but material needs are vulnerable to Western influence [ 28 ]. Copy of Westerners clothing by wearing vests by young people is intolerable in some place [ 53 ]. Younger generation conduct between sexes and consumption of alcohol is inappropriate to local norms [ 53 ]. There is conflicting experiences of participation in conceptualization and operation of their communal ecotourism initiative. Community members do not share same understanding and appreciation of financial growth [ 30 ].

3.3. Economic impacts

3.3.1. positive impacts.

Ecotourism enhances conservation and development by providing environmental and economic benefits [ 6 ]. There was socio-cultural change from subsistence to market economy and changes in traditional land resource rights and institutions [ 52 ]. Economic benefit in ecotourism comes from direct employment, rental of accommodation for visitors and the sale of handicrafts and food [ 53 ]. Ecotourism provides local economic benefits such as employment, improved infrastructure, increased business for local stores and also maintain ecological resource integrity through low-impact, non-consumptive resource use [ 6 ].

Rural tourism provides peasantry with more profit, more employment and better living conditions by promoting the linkage of agriculture and tourism [ 14 ]. It develops rural economy and rural culture. It brings a lot of economic income for the local villagers and provides second revenue [ 14 ]. It can attract developed region’s funds to invest in periphery regions through construction, bring revenue through flows of passengers, transportation, and accommodation and solves the poverty problem. It helps to transfer the rural surplus labors to non-agricultural industries, change the traditional rural lifestyle and productive style, increase the income of farmers and improve the welfare [ 71 ]. It had great contribution to the regional economy [ 71 ].

The environment-friendly characteristic of ecotourism brings economic and ecological benefits [ 71 ]. Population having experience and skill for highland tourism business takes ecotourism as the most desirable and important economic opportunity. The major sources of revenue generation in tourism are restaurants, souvenirs shops, guiding services, accommodation and entrance fees [ 58 ]. Additional sources of income from ecotourism might include sale of traditional handicrafts or agricultural products [ 2 ]. Traditional local handicrafts can be sold to tourist to increases economic gains of local communities [ 9 ]. Communities try to enhance economic importance and wanted to develop a greater involvement in the future [ 54 ].

Many parks works as government agency to collect revenue from fee and license, retention of budget surpluses, set prices to overcome the cost of production and coordinate with corporate and non-profit entities [ 18 ]. Ecotourism financially supports protected areas through tourism-related park fees [ 6 ]. It provides revenue to the park authority and income to local people [ 24 ]. Ecotourism is already the largest source of foreign exchange in many countries [ 1 ].

Ecotourism generate foreign exchange earnings, employment, and other economic and social benefits in the areas so it helps in developing thoughtful economic policy and institutional development [ 18 , 23 ]. Accommodation industry are provided more subsidies, tax cuts, concessions, promotional packages and soaps to contribute for the growth and development of the economy [ 23 ]. Ecotourism can be an integral part of the master development strategy of a developing nation [ 75 ].

Half of park visitor entrance fees are allocated to local management committees for development projects of their choice such as road improvements, construction of tables for a primary school, well and public toilet construction and building rehabilitation [ 65 ]. Due to the increase in tourist number, infrastructure for tourism and tour guiding have been developed [ 55 ]. Tourism can have both environmental and social consequences [ 55 ].

Other than the cultural centre and resource access, tourism creates jobs for community members, helps in socio-economic development and generates revenue from conservation [ 44 ]. Tourism is an important source of employment for the people in the territory [ 56 ]. Economic benefits for local residents rates the direct employment of locals in the tourism industry, including hotels, lodges, tourist restaurants, and tourist chauffeuring [ 75 ]. It should be taken as the important way to increase employment and release environmental pressure [ 71 ]. It helps to transfer the rural surplus labors to non-agricultural industries, change the traditional rural lifestyle and productive style, increase the income of farmers and improve the welfare [ 71 ]. It provides more native employment in lower job status and income [ 1 , 41 , 59 ]. Women make up to 45.3% of all staff working in guest houses and restaurants. Nearly 80% of the helping staff is family members with 50% women helpers. But most of the tourism businesses are owned and operated by male migrants or old established noble families [ 41 ]. It is labor intensive and offers a variety of small scale opportunities creating jobs for poor, women, young people and indigenous community [ 1 ]. Tourism and recreation inside the park provides employment and new business opportunities [ 9 ]. The guides working in the tour companies come from local villages and other settlements and know the environment well [ 9 ]. In some cases, community involvement is rudimentary and limited to temporary employment (3–4 weeks) in the form of maids, cooks, entertainers, porters and security guards [ 54 ].

3.3.2. Negative impacts

Ecotourism can bring negative social, cultural and economic impacts. In addition to its potential environmental drawbacks, it often fails to provide widespread economic benefits [ 6 ]. There is major impact on the local economy due to ban on trade and mountaineering/expeditions and trekking activities [ 52 ]. Ineffective management of tourism causes negative impact on park resources [ 18 ].

From the above discussion, environmental, social and economic benefits of ecotourism were observed. Ecotourism has helped in environmental conservation, natural regeneration, new plantations, increase in forest cover, protection of natural resources and biological diversity, conservation of flora and fauna and decrease in deforestation and hunting rate. In spite of these positive environmental impacts, it consumes scarce resources, produces waste by-products, requires specific infrastructure and superstructure, causes litter problem, air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, destruction of fish, increased clearing of land, drop of forest, vegetation damage, desertification, soil erosion, habitat disturbance and trail erosion.

Increase in traditional hospitality and honest folkway, social stability and harmony, development of rural culture are positive social aspects while negative aspects includes promoting social conflict by challenging cultural values, increase in conflicts between the locals and government authorities, increase in alcoholism, drug addiction and prostitution, adverse impact on local traditional and plain cultures and also makes simple life vulnerable to Western influence.

Economic benefit in ecotourism comes from direct employment, rental of accommodation for visitors, sale of handicrafts and food, improved infrastructure, increased business for local stores, better living conditions, promotion of linkage between agriculture and tourism, development of rural economy, transfer of rural surplus labors to non-agricultural industries, change in traditional rural lifestyle and productive style and increase in income of farmers. Negative impact on the local economy is due to ban on trade, mountaineering/expeditions and trekking activities and negative impact on park resources.

4. Ecotourism and its role in sustainable development in Nepal

Ecotourism helps in sustainable development of the country. As, Nepal is rich in biological, cultural and social diversity, there is a great scope of sustainable development from ecotourism. By observing these benefits, this part assesses the impacts of ecotourism in environment, society and economy with the help of researches conducted in Nepal.

4.1. Environmental impacts

Ecotourism helps in natural resource management and biodiversity conservation in Ghandruk. Increase in forest cover, conservation of flora and fauna, increase in greenery and use of alternative energy sources are the positive environmental impacts of ecotourism. Floral and faunal diversity had also been increased [ 5 ].

In ACA, there are clean and comfortable stays, good local cuisine, outstanding natural scenery and positive interactions with host communities. Satisfaction rating of living room comfort, overall cleanliness, views, peaceful atmosphere, host friendliness, price, and local food exceeded the importance attached to them while bedroom options, toilet, shower, menu, Western food, lodging recommendations and environmental quality did not exceed the importance rating. But the satisfaction of environmental quality was rated very high [ 63 ].

4.2. Social impacts

Ecotourism had helped in increasing mutual help and cooperation, controlling antisocial activities and conserving religious and cultural heritage in Ghandruk. It had also played a great role in maintaining peace and prosperity in the society. There is increase in cooperation of people with religious beliefs and religious tolerance [ 5 ].

The local people felt that the presence of visitors in remote area enhanced their pride in Barpak. Increased excitement of children was the positive outcomes of ecotourism. Success of ecotourism is due to coordination of local community members, line agencies and various levels of government, transparency in the development of the homestay progras, clear guidelines and standards, hospitality training and monitoring of environment and bottom up approach of women taking local level ownership and control. Also, ecotourism entrepreneurs sit in a meeting every month reviews the activities and takes feedback to improve their services. Ecotourism addresses gender inequities by the active involvement of women in economic activities associated with tourism [ 38 ].

4.3. Economic impacts

Government of Nepal recognizes tourism as a priority sector and major contributor to Nepal’s economy. The total foreign exchange earnings from tourism in Nepal in fiscal year 2010/2011, 2011/2012 and 2012/2013 was Rs. 24,611.0, 30,703.8 and 34,210.6 million, respectively. The tourism sector contribution in GDP was 1.5, 1.4, 2.3, 2.8, 2.4, 1.8, 2.0 and 2.0 percent in 2005/2006, 2006/2007, 2007/2008, 2008/2009, 2009/2010, 2010/2011, 2011/2012 and 2012/2013, respectively. The highest total foreign exchange earnings from tourism were Rs. 34,210.6 million in 2012/2013 [ 40 ].

Ecotourism is one of the meaningful sources of economic development and job creation in Ghandruk. It had encouraged people to establish hotels, restaurants, tea shops, bakery cafes, grocery and gift shops. It has brought a lot of economic income for the local villagers [ 5 ]. Ecotourism provides fixed price of available services in a package as per the choice of the tourist in the format of a menu in Barpak [ 38 ].

Ecotourism participation had increased household consumption in MCA. By participating in ecotourism activities, people are able to generate more income and are increasing their household consumption [ 36 ].

Ecotourism has been widely recognized for its role in employment generation and contribution to the national economy. Trekking is recognized as a major part of this industry in Nepal. It can generate jobs directly through hotels, restaurants, taxis, souvenir sales, local guides and indirectly through the supply of goods and services needed by tourism related business. The impressive growth of Pokhara is a good example of how tourism can contribute to economic growth. Similarly, settlements along the trekking routes in ACA have received tourism benefits, which have contributed to development of the region [ 76 ].

Ecotourism has immense potential to help in poverty alleviation in Nepal. It had made significant contribution to rural development, agricultural transformation, community enrichment and social empowerment of women in ACA. Because of higher incomes, many parents of Manang District of ACA can now afford to send their children to high schools and universities in Kathmandu [ 77 ].

From the above findings, it is observed that ecotourism helps in natural resource management, biodiversity conservation, increase in forest cover, conservation of flora and fauna and increase in greenery and use of alternative energy sources in Nepal. It develops mutual help and cooperation, controls antisocial activities, conserves religious and cultural heritage, maintains peace and prosperity in the society and increases cooperation of people with religious beliefs and religious tolerance. Tourism is a major contributor to Nepal’s economy and helps in economic development, job creation, increase in household consumption and poverty alleviation. Also, it had made significant contribution to rural development, agricultural transformation, community enrichment and social empowerment.

5. Needs of ecotourism

Self-reliant communities have greater chance of progress in ecotourism [ 78 ]. There is need for sustainable use of tourism resources, proper handling of tourism demands, repartitioning tourism flow and digital system for tourism management [ 27 ]. Expertise in park management and finance management lowers negative environmental impacts and increases positive economic impact. There will be major shift in park management, tourism management and financial management which will help in sustainable development of tourism [ 18 ].

Local income, biodiversity conservation and cultural preservation are necessary for tourism intervention in remote areas. There is need of improvement of accessibility, liberalization of pricing policy, community empowerment, and development of tourism facilities and incorporation of nature-based tourism products. To generate social, economic and environmental benefits, tourism intervention in protected areas must make a multi or interdisciplinary and interdepartmental effort. This requires strengthening collaboration between the conservation and tourism authorities to develop ecotourism inside the park [ 15 ]. Cultural tourism need to be developed to preserve cultural traditions and enrich the quality of the life of local communities. It is necessary to develop and promote minority cultures to support preserving cultural traditions and education and training programs of ecotourism and nature reserve for tourism operators, employees and tourist [ 17 ].

Ecotourism requires four tradeoffs: success and survival at the expense of ecotourism’s spatial isolation and structural independence; local employment and benefits at the expense of local initiation and control; social status and mobility at the expense of social cohesion and harmony; and incipient environmentalism at the expense of ecological sustainability [ 21 ]. Successful ecotourism ventures depend on an integrated management philosophy that considers beneficiaries, socioeconomic constraints and impacts on the resource base within a realistic spatial and temporal scale. It requires that entire ecosystems, or at least the biological diversity that they contain, are managed in relation to the tourism experience [ 16 ]. Ecotourism and its sustainability require the inclusion of local participation/benefits, economic viability, education dissemination, tourist satisfaction and the minimizing of tourism impact [ 32 ].

5.1. Cooperation of communities

Parks and protected areas need people’s effective participation for meaningful resource management [ 78 ]. If locals are actively involved in tourism planning and development, it becomes much easier to get their support for conservation and avoid serious conflicts with the management [ 22 ]. Support and participation of local communities is important for development and management of the nature reserve [ 17 ]. Community participation is needed to make ecotourism sustainable [ 56 ]. Community-based programs such as community organizing, environmental education and leadership training should be done with the involvement of relevant stakeholders in a collective manner [ 28 ].

After privatization of tourism facilities and services, park management encouraged the local communities to involve directly in delivering tourism activities. Nature guiding training is provided to local communities to enhance themselves in this sector. Local tourism provider associations are established to secure local interest in tourism participation [ 79 ]. Local economic diversity is also important to the sustainability of community-based ecotourism projects [ 2 ]. Mechanisms for managing conflicts between protection and development faced by the nature reserves should be clearly addressed [ 25 ].

Establishment of the National Network of Protected Areas needs sound management and should ensure long-term maintenance and achieve the goal of promoting local economic development within the communities [ 22 ]. The management committee should be formed which include all government agencies responsible in natural resources management and economic development. There is need of cooperation between local governments, local communities, NGOs and the private sector [ 17 ]. Development of park management framework for staff and finance management play a key role in running a park effectively [ 18 ].

Local government officials had a great role for conservation, development and logistical functions towards tourism development [ 17 ]. Local governments should develop fund from provincial and national governments or NGOs for managing the reserve [ 17 ]. Appropriate measures to protect the core area from over-exploitation and unsustainable human use need to be conducted by government [ 28 ]. Macro-scale institutional organization and coordination, both at the national and international levels, are important for the sustainability of community-based projects. Multiple government departments, including ministries of tourism, natural resources, and rural development, should coordinate policies and programs in order to pursue the success of ecotourism projects. International organizations, which often fund ecotourism projects, must also coordinate with government agencies and local non-profits [ 2 ]. Planning and management need to be supervised by a council, advisory board, association, or program, which would be a not-for-profit NGO. The roles of the various stakeholders involved in the project, as well as the hierarchy of the people involved, will need to be clearly articulated, since the success of the ecotourism network will depend on appropriate levels of leadership, cooperation and coordination amongst the involved parties [ 80 ].

Conservation agreements effectiveness depends on appropriate role of local circumstance. An agreement between community and park management is beneficial when people are encouraged to abandon behavior that brings conflicts with conservation. Conditional link between the obligations of the community and benefits is created by agreement with external monitoring and enforcement. If the livelihoods are directly dependent on legal and sustainable use of park resource and services, an agreement for internal control is relevant to regulate access to benefits and prevent selfish behavior [ 61 ].

5.2. Skill and capacity

Tourism agencies need to enhance their skill and capacity to address climate change. Development of strong leadership, commitment and sufficient resource is necessary to cope with impact of climate change on tourism sector [ 43 ]. Knowledge and experience of local community can improve planning and decision making of tourism, conservation and economic development. For the smooth operation of tourism in protected areas, it is important to have trained staff, more efficient administration and better coordination with the contributions of various stakeholders [ 28 ]. Hence, trainings on skills, knowledge and quality development is necessary. For appropriate training approach, research on evaluation of formal training and follow up training is necessary. Systematic evaluation of existing informal and formal training is needed to assist in developing new programs and improve existing ones [ 64 ].

Positive attitude of guide is important to show pro-environmental behavior while guiding [ 66 ]. Visitors prefer good quality information; tour guides and low impact activities and select the destination with high ecological value and good site management [ 29 ]. To promote conservation, education programs should be developed for local residents related to nature reserve [ 17 ]. Overall planning for ecotourism development is necessary in most nature reserves [ 25 ]. There is need of competent staff as tourist guides with good management experience [ 25 ].

5.3 Ecotourism policies

It was recommended to develop environmental friendly policies focusing on research to understand the motivations and expectations of qualified co-workers for a successful recruitment process and conduction of longitudinal studies to investigate the lifecycle of the individual firms [ 42 ]. Management strategies should focus on ways to achieve sustainability by involving local people [ 54 ]. Strategic planning, financial analysis, and business plan development are needed to improve the quality and viability of ecotourism [ 13 ]. Also, climate change and tourism sector requires a strong policy framework led by a government agency to convert private into public and global flow into local flow in the current time [ 43 ].

5.4 Challenges of ecotourism

The main challenge for adoption of natural sciences knowledge in wildlife tourism was lack of competent and dedicated human capital and difficulties in networking. Differences in gender, culture and professional background and difficulties in local networking act as barriers to cooperation within the local context [ 42 ]. Lack of education and English language skills is a major obstacle for tourism business development and direct employment [ 41 , 53 ]. The main challenge is to increase the length of stay of visitors which could be done by hiking and camel safaris [ 44 ].

6. Conclusions

Ecotourism has environmental, social and economic impacts to the community, nation and the whole world. For assessing its issues and impacts, social tools such as questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions, key informant interviews and review of literature were applied by different researchers. It has helped in sustainable development of Nepal and the whole world by conserving environment, increasing employment, enhancing livelihood and promoting the culture and traditions. There is need of cooperation among different stakeholders, training of ecotourism to tourism entrepreneurs and appropriate management policy for sustainable implementation of ecotourism projects.

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Multilingual education, social transformation and development in Nepal

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Essay on My Country Nepal For Students

If there is a country’s flag that stands out among all other countries it is the flag of Nepal . Our flag is very unique and cannot be compared to other countries’ flags due to its shape. It also has a hidden meaning behind it which represents the country’s peace-loving and friendly nature, bravery, and immortal history.

My country Nepal is situated between two countries, India and China. Although it is sandwiched between international powers, conflicts have not happened between any, and peace remains. Nepal is a country of various castes and cultures. In other words, it is like a beautiful garden of flowers with people of different ethnicities and backgrounds.

My country Nepal is not only unique for its flag but also its geographical terrain, the variety of castes and cultures you can find, and the rich history of it. It is the land of various great places and important figures that people know far and wide. The temperature here spans from cool to hot and is a heaven for residing in.

There are about 126 castes in Nepal each with its own rich history and culture which makes Nepal a rich place for culture. Some dating back to the millenniums. Not only that, our country is very rich in its geographical terrain. From the lowest point of just 70 Meters from sea level to the world’s highest peak Mt. Everest (8848.86 meters) , we have temperature scales that vary from place to place. It is divided into three regions, Terai, Hilly, and Himalayas each according to their altitude and geographical differences.

Himalayan regions have high and mighty Himalayas that are breathtaking to look at. Out of the world’s top 10 highest peaks, 8 of them fall in my country. It is already a great pride to have come from such a country. The diverse flora and fauna, beautiful landscapes, lush and green jungles, historical and religious places in Nepal are enough to gather the attention of foreigners and locals too. People from all over the world pay thousands of dollars just to see our country’s snow-capped mountains, rivers, cliffs, waterfalls, other beautiful landscapes, the rich flora and fauna, and sites of great religious and historical importance. It just doesn’t end there.

📌 Read – Essay on the Importance of English Language

Our country ranks in the top 5 for the richest in water resources. With just a small country with an area of 1,47,181 sq kilometers, it has the potential to fuel hydropower worth 2% of the entire world. It may look small in number but taking our country’s small area in context, it is a potential incomparable to all. The Terai region holds fertile land and smooth flowing waters that are excellent for farming and cultivating.

Nepal is also known as an agricultural country where 60% of the people here follow agriculture as their work. Our country also has huge historical importance. Gautama Buddha the founder and preacher of Buddhism which is practiced worldwide was also born in Nepal. Buddhism is known to preach peace and non-violence and to love everyone. King Janak is also an important figure who holds great importance to communities in Nepal.

Other personalities include Bhrikuti, Araniko, etc. Our country is also known for its bravery. Our country never has to celebrate Independence day as we were never under the rule of any other. We stood and fought against the Britans and other Mongol countries. Brave Gorkhalis were united after a long struggle and fought their way to preserve their country. The courage and bravery of Nepali people are also know world wide. Many brave Gorkhalis went to fight under countries in world wars and won various colors and medals. This brought our country so much respect that we even enjoy it for granted to date.

Although our country’s history, culture, terrains, and achievements make anyone feel proud, the power struggle for the politicians, previous kings, and presidents have made the country weak and fall in the developing country category. Our rich natural resources have not been utilized and we have fallen way behind. Corruption is widely prevalent in our country and the loans we have taken from other countries are in a large number. The amount of food and other materialistic consumption has made Nepal import more and export less.

Our country is poor but the people here are rich. This is because of the corruption and the illegal working/trading that has been done. The government has not made significant progress and the people aren’t responsible. Although I feel proud to be A Nepali, the condition of my country makes me feel bad. People should feel responsible and carry out their duties and not just complain about the government.

The government too should implement proper policies and rules and enforce them accordingly. Utilization of our natural resources should be done in an effective way and social evils such as discrimination according to castes and genders, other superstitions should be slowly removed. Centralized development should stop and we should control the people moving out to other countries with their skills that are wasted abroad. This way we can slowly develop our country.

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28 thoughts on “ essay on my country nepal for students ”.

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Connecting through diversity

Become a volunteer, climate change and biodiversity, skilling and education, emergency response, disaster risk reduction, agricultural development, we engage, inspire, and enrich individuals to become productive citizens, ethical leaders, and constructive contributors to our community, country, and global society ., php the_sub_field('title') >.

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Our Main Focus

Nepal houses 118 ecosystems, 75 vegetation types, and 35 forest types; however, with the rising climate change, the ecosystem of Nepal has been significantly affected. Nepal ranks fourth in terms of climate change impact, eleventh in terms of earthquake risk and thirtieth in terms of flood risk.

As a country with diverse typography, complex geology, and highly varying climate, more than 80% of the population is exposed to the risk of natural hazards (MoHA, 2017), which include earthquakes, droughts, floods, landslides, extreme temperature, and glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs).

Nepal is extremely vulnerable to natural disasters and their devastating consequences. We support all children and their families and communities, especially the most vulnerable, to become more resilient to disasters and recover.

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