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1.1: What is Communication Research?

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• Lindsey Jo Hand, Erin Ryan, and Karen Sichler
• Kennesaw State University via GALILEO Open Learning Materials

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When we consider rhetoric, the study of the art of persuasive speaking, the history of communication research can be traced back to the days of Aristotle. You will learn more about rhetoric in your public speaking and communication theory courses, so we won’t take a deep dive into it here, but the larger point is that humans have been interested in studying communication since 300 B.C. Modern communication research and efforts to define and “model” the process of communication, however, is typically traced back to the early 20th century.

Walter Lippmann’s (1922) book Public Opinion is a seminal piece in the early study of communication. Lippmann’s (1922) focus on communication and democracy might sound familiar to you; his objective was to highlight problems facing democracy by discussing how public opinion consists of “pictures inside people’s heads [that] do not automatically correspond with the world outside” (p. 19). He argued that people’s access to facts are often limited, thus public opinions are often misleading and inaccurate, but yet we still tend to collectively act upon them. John Dewey’s (1927) book The Public and its Problems took a similar view of the communication process, but he had a more optimistic view, “When communication occurs, all natural events are subject to reconsideration and revision; they are re-adapted to meet the requirements of conversation, whether it be public discourse or that preliminary discourse termed thinking” (p. 132). Both Lippmann and Dewey set the stage for future study of communication by highlighting its importance in social life, democracy, and community.

Upon the founding of the Annenberg School of Communication at the University of Pennsylvania in 1958, publisher and ambassador Walter Annenberg wrote:

"Every human advancement or reversal can be understood through communication. The right to free communication carries with it responsibility to respect the dignity of others – and this must be recognized as irreversible. Educating students to effectively communicate this message and to be of service to all people is the enduring mission of this school."

The scholars who helped establish the Annenberg School set the stage for the future of teaching and researching communication. Under George Gerbner, the second dean of the school from 1964 until 1989, the school moved communication research beyond either a strict medium (radio, television, speech) or professional training basis to a more theoretical understanding of communication. The mission of the Annenberg School at the University of Pennsylvania is to produce cutting-edge research, sharing the work to help expand the public’s and policy makers’ understanding of communication, educate graduate and undergraduate students to move forward the discipline as well as encourage students to be better consumers of communication.

Fields of Communication

For a comprehensive overview of the fields of communication (and career options for each category) visit https://www.communications-major.com/ . Reading through this list will help you understand the skills required in the communication professions, and you can discover which types of jobs appeal to you the most. Many of these fields overlap. Regardless of what career path you choose, you will need to be a skilled writer and speaker, understand digital technology, and develop the ability to analyze information and think critically. When you determine which path is a good fit for you, choose from one of the four majors in the School of Communication and Media:

Journalism and Emerging Media

( http://chss.kennesaw.edu/socm/programs/bsjem.php )

Whether you are navigating the media-rich culture as a critical thinker, learning to write and produce news and feature stories as a journalist, or are gaining hands-on experience in digital video and audio as a social media expert, Kennesaw State's Journalism and Emerging Media program offers endless possibilities.

Learn the latest industry trends from faculty members who are award-winning professionals, including reporters, editors and international correspondents at the Associated Press, the Atlanta JournalConstitution , CNN, NPR, commercial radio stations and various newspapers. The Journalism and Emerging Media major offers a professionally-focused, marketplace-relevant, and theoretically-rigorous program. It includes courses in news writing, media law, digital media production, sports reporting, investigative reporting, and community-based capstone experience. It encourages students to enroll in a forcredit internship.

Media and Entertainment

( http://chss.kennesaw.edu/socm/programs/bsmes.php )

The Media and Entertainment major invites students to explore the critical ways in which communication and converged media connect with and affect our lives, society, and culture. The program focuses on the forms and effects of media, including radio, film, television, print, and electronic media, and requires that students demonstrate basic digital media production skills. Our students are critically engaged with creative analysis, production, and research into traditional and emerging forms of media. The curriculum emphasizes media history, media institutions, theory and research, production, ethics, policy, management, and technology and their effects on contemporary life.

The program offers both theoretical and applied approaches to the study and production of media. We define “entertainment” as “any media or communication function that is used for entertainment purposes” when considering areas of study. Thus, the field of media and entertainment is very broad and includes everything from film, television, and radio pre-production, production, and post-production; to corporate, government, and non-profit communications and digital media production; to jobs in theater, music, museums, theme parks, sports, travel and tourism, and gaming.

Organizational and Professional Communication

( http://chss.kennesaw.edu/socm/programs/bsopc.php )

Organizational and Professional Communication professionals study the role of communication in increasing corporate productivity and employee satisfaction. KSU is the only Georgia institution offering an undergraduate concentration in Organizational and Professional Communication. Organizational and Professional Communication students learn the skills they need to develop employee training programs, training manuals, and employee handbooks. Students also conduct communication audits at area companies to measure employee satisfaction with company communication practices. Students often intern in corporate human resources or training and development departments.

Public Relations

( http://chss.kennesaw.edu/socm/programs/bspr.php )

The Public Relations major at Kennesaw State University offers a professionally-focused, marketplace-relevant, and theoretically-rigorous academic program for aspiring public relations communicators throughout Metro Atlanta and Northwest Georgia. Kennesaw State is one of only three universities in the state of Georgia to offer a specific major in the ever-evolving discipline of Public Relations. The major offers students a public relations education that includes public relations principles, case study analysis, public relations writing, crisis communication, graphic design for organizational publications, persuasion methods and strategies, and use of social media and other multimedia communication strategies in public relations. Internships and study tours to New York and Atlanta public relations agencies supplement the traditional classroom and online learning settings.

For a list of potential communication-based employers in the state of Georgia, check out this page: https://www.communications-major.com/georgia/

Professional Organizations

In the field of communication research, there are several regional, national, and international professional organizations for educators, students, and communication practitioners. Each organization has a code of ethics, or best practices, for the profession and for training and developing the next generation of researchers and professors. These nonprofit organizations hold conventions/ conferences where communication students and scholars come together to present research, have roundtable discussions, and discuss recent innovations in the field. Typically, these organizations have divisions and interest groups devoted to the various categories of scholarship that fall under the “communication” umbrella. Examples include divisions devoted specifically to journalism, public relations, mass communication and society, communication theory, advertising, health communication, technology, cultural and critical studies, history, law and policy, ethics, gender/women’s studies, entertainment studies, children and media, and communication education.

For a typical yearly conference, the organization puts out a “call for papers” online 3-6 months before the conference, and scholars upload their original research to the website into the division that best fits their research topic. Each paper is then reviewed by peers in that field (typically two or three reviewers) who score the paper on dimensions such as quality of writing, importance of the topic, soundness of methodology, and impact of findings. Papers that gain high scores are then slated for presentation at the conference. Some presentations are done on posters whereas others are orally presented to small groups, typically using a visual aid such as PowerPoint. Presenting at an academic conference is a great way to get feedback from peers in your field before attempting to publish your work in an academic journal. And aside from presenting or attending research sessions, conferences offer an opportunity to connect and network with fellow scholars in your field. Conferences also typically have a “job fair” where representatives from various universities interview prospective new professors for academic positions.

There are several well-known and well-respected professional communication organizations in the United States. The Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) is one of the largest organizations, holding small regional conferences and one large conference each year. AEJMC has 18 divisions, 10 interest groups, and two commissions (or areas of broad concern that cut across divisional lines): Commission on the Status of Minorities and Commission on the Status of Women. Most divisions and interest groups have their own academic journal (i.e., Journal of Advertising Education , Electronic News , International Communication Research Journal , Mass Communication & Society , etc.,) and AEJMC publishes three scholarly journals: Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , Journal & Mass Communication Educator , and Journalism & Communication Monographs . More information about AEJMC can be found at www.aejmc.org.

The National Communication Association (NCA) is another large organization, and its annual convention attracts roughly 5,000 attendees. NCA has 48 divisions and six caucuses (Asian/Pacific American; Black; Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer Concerns; Disability; La Raza; and Women’s Caucus). In addition to journalism and mass communication, NCA features research divisions in activism and social justice, argumentation and forensics, ethnography, family communication, group communication, interpersonal communication, nonverbal communication, organizational communication, peace and conflict communication, public address, spiritual communication, and training and development. NCA publishes 11 academic journals: Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies , Communication Education , Communication Monographs , Communication Teacher , Critical Studies in Media Communication , First Amendment Studies , Journal of Applied Communication Research ,Journal of International and Intercultural Communication ,Quarterly Journal of Speech, The Review of Communication ,and Text and Performance Quarterly . More information about NCA can be found at www.natcom.org.

The largest international organization in our field is the International Communication Association (ICA). ICA boasts more than 4,500 members from 80 countries and is officially associated with the United Nations as a non-governmental NGO. They host an annual conference, switching between a US destination and an international destination each year. ICA has 23 divisions and nine interest groups, including divisions in Children, Adolescents and Media; Environmental Communication; Feminist Scholarship; Game Studies; Global Communication and Social Change; Philosophy, Theory and Critique; and Popular Communication in addition to divisions devoted to journalism, PR, and mass communication. ICA publishes six major peer reviewed journals: Journal of Communication, Communication Theory; Human Communication Research; Communication, Culture & Critique; Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication; and The Annals of the International Communication Association (formerly Communication Yearbook). There are also two affiliate journals: Communication & Society (a leading Chinese-language journal in journalism and communication) and Studies in Communication & Media (an open-access journal published by the German Communication Association). More information about ICA can be found at www.icahdq.org.

In addition to national and international professional organizations, there are several regional organizations that hold conferences. In our geographical area, we have the Georgia Communication Association (affiliated with NCA; www.gacomm.org), the Southern States Communication Association which publishes the Southern Communication Journal (also affiliated with NCA; www.ssca.net), and the Eastern Communication Association (ECA) which hosts conferences along the east coast of the US, and publishes Communication Research Reports, Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, and Communication Quarterly (www.ecasite.org). There are also regional meetings of the larger organizations, such as the AEJMC Southeast Colloquium, which is held at a different university in the Southeast each March.

There are also professional organizations associated with specific fields within the communication discipline. The Public Relations Society of America (PRSA; http://prsa.org ) is the largest communication-based professional organization in the US, boasting more than 30,000 members, and has a mission to “make communications professionals smarter, better prepared and more connected through all stages of their career.” They also support the Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA; http://prssa.prsa.org ) with university chapters across the US. Kennesaw State’s School of Communication & Media has a PRSSA chapter, so if you’re a PR-Interest student you should check it out: http://www.ksuprssa.org .

Journalists have a professional organization as well: The Society for Professional Journalists (SPJ; www.spj.org). SPJ is the most broad-based journalism organization in the US, dedicated to “encouraging the free practice of journalism and stimulating high standards of ethical behavior.” SPJ was founded in 1909 and currently has roughly 7,500 members. The state of Georgia has an SPJ chapter ( https://spjgeorgia.com/ ) and Kennesaw State has a very active student chapter. You can check them out via their Facebook page: https://www.facebook.com/KennesawStateSpj.Interested in journalism and mass communication history? The American Journalism Historians Association (AJHA; https:// ajha.wildapricot.org/) holds a national conference and a Southeast symposium every year and publishes the academic journal American Journalism.

Are you a media production enthusiast? The Broadcast Education Association (BEA; www.beaweb.org) is a great resource. BEA is an international academic media professional organization focused on excellence in media production and career advancement for educators, students, and professionals in the industry. The organization holds a massive annual convention in Las Vegas in April, with over 250 sessions on teaching media courses, collaborative networking events, hands-on technology workshops, and research and creative scholarship, in addition to the Festival of Media Arts. The BEA convention is co-located with the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) Show, where attendees can learn about (and try!) all of the new media production technology. BEA also publishes the Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Journal of Radio & Audio Media, Journal of Media Education, and the Electronic Media Research book series.

For scholars interested in film and media studies, The Society for Cinema & Media Studies (SCMS; https://www.cmstudies.org/ ) is dedicated to the scholarly study of film, television, video, and new media. They hold an annual conference where students and teachers of film and media studies present research and attend networking events. SCMS also publishes the peer-reviewed academic publication Cinema Journal, focusing on digital media, sound studies, visual culture, video game studies, fan studies, and avant-garde/experimental film and media practices.

Or perhaps you’re interested in health communication? The American Public Health Association has a Health Communication working group ( https://www.apha.org/apha-communities/ member-sections/public-health-education-and-health-promotion/who-we-are/hcwg) and the National Public Health Information Coalition (NPHIC) partners with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to host a national conference on health communication, media, and marketing ( https://www.cdc.gov/nchcmm/index.html ).

Are you an organizational and professional communication scholar? Try the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM; www.shrm.org). They host an annual conference with nearly 200 sessions in six categories: business & HR strategy, HR compliance, global HR, professional development, talent management, and total rewards. They also host conferences on diversity & inclusion, employment law & legislation, leadership development, and recruitment & talent management. There is a local Atlanta chapter here: https://www.shrmatlanta.org/ default.aspx. Another great resource is the Association for Talent Development (formerly “training & development) or ATD (www.td.org). They host conferences in the US and abroad as well as training workshops called “LearnNow” on topics such as game design for instruction, employee engagement, and getting started with augmented reality and virtual reality.

Dewey, J. (1927). The public and its problems. New York: Holt.

Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion . New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.

"In much of society, research means to investigate something you do not know or understand. ” -Neil Armstrong

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What is Communication Research?

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Table of Contents

Let’s start things off with a hopefully rather non-controversial assumption: you’re reading this text. Now, don’t worry, the rest of the post won’t continue to list such inanely clear truths, but this statement serves to highlight what’s occurring right now – communication.

It’s a rather one-sided process currently, with me doing the writing and you doing the reading, but the process of sending a message and that message being understood is occurring. There are endless ways of looking further at this – would you still be reading if you were on a different website? What about if you’re tired, or angry? How would whatever else you’ve read today – or ever – affect how you react to this information? This in essence is what communication research is about – how messages are sent, and how they are received.

At its broadest, communication research is concerned with identifying, exploring, and measuring the factors that surround communication, in any form and regarding any topic . Often from a theory-driven perspective, but increasingly with empirically-grounded methods. Want to know how to make political messaging more effective? Increase the appeal of advertising ? Make people adhere to a health campaign? Communication research these answers.

Below, we will discuss and define communication research further, the research that has shaped the field, and where the field is going.

Definition of Communication Research

As a field of study, communication research dates back either 2000 years or 100 years, depending on your level of pedantry. The study of rhetoric was a hot topic in ancient Greece, and shares some commonalities with the modern form, yet clearly much has changed. The field now focuses on gathering empirical data, and builds theories that help understand the complexity of communication on many levels. In a sense it has less interest in the linguistic style of debating philosophers, and more interest in the groups of people that might be listening.

History of Communication Research

One of the most influential books that helped give rise to modern communication research was “ Social Organization: a Study of the Larger Mind ” by Charles Cooley, published in 1909 [1]. Described by one reviewer as “a series of essays on fundamental sociological problems, written in delightful literary style, and with keen and sound psychological insight” and that “Professor Cooley gives, for the first time in sociological literature, strange as it may seem, full and adequate recognition of ‘communication’ as a fundamental fact in the social life” [2].

This book, with a delightful literary style , would set the stage for the work of other academics with an interest in communication, and ultimately the creation of the first academic departments with a clear focus on the field.

In 1952, Bernard Berelson released “ Content Analysis in Communication Research ” – a book that proved pivotal not only to communication researchers of the time, but also had a broader impact [3, 4]. Written in a way that was – according to one reviewer at the time – “unusually lucid for a social science publication”, the book describes the ways in which media and communication are compared, and explores the methods that are used to carry out those comparisons. The book ultimately helped shift the field towards a more quantitative, scientific approach.

In the 1960s and 1970s, social unrest brought about social change, and communication researchers looked more closely at the surrounding language. They explored the systems of thought and discourse that had traditionally been in place, how they were changing, and what that might mean for the future of communication [5]. This occurred alongside the continual expansion of mass communication methods – TV and radio continued their dominance of message-spreading in the western world.

The shift into empirical methodology continued. While theoretical discussions of communication remained (and remain) central to the field, the introduction of data-driven, quantified assessments became an increasingly routine aspect of communication research. The book “ Mass Communication Research Methods ”, released in 1998, helped cement this as standard, defining the experimental methods of the day [6].

These research methods – focus groups , observations, and surveys – have now long been central to the field, yet the next step in empirical quantification is already emerging. Continuing with the steps towards quantification and more thoroughly empirical approaches, new unbiased tools are now being used as a way to incisively measure the processes surrounding communication, to test theories, and to advance understanding further. But what does this look like?

New Methods for Communication Research

Eye tracking has become one of the most widely used technologies within communication research, largely as it “gives communication scholars the opportunity to examine more precisely how much visual attention has been paid to information” [7].

In 2016, researchers from the University of Amsterdam carried out the first retrospective study examining the use of eye tracking technology within communication research [7]. They found that the majority of studies within communication using eye tracking had focused on advertising research , yet public health, language, and computer-mediated communication were also areas that had been looked at. They also conclude that “ that eye tracking has much more potential in communication research”.

One example of this potential being seized upon is found in research by researchers from Ohio State University and the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign, who developed eye tracking metrics to assess automatic stereotyping [8]. By using a gaze-contingency task , they were able to show that stereotype-congruent fixations were decreased for those with a higher political knowledge score.

Political Communication Research

The research showed that participants who are categorized as knowledgeable about politics were more capable of “moderating automatic responses” – adding a new layer of understanding to how political communication can impact reported and actual responses. The researchers go on to state that this “implies that the influence of automatic processes on political thinking is conditional” – meaning that our response to political communication may be less automatic than previously thought.

Responsive Media Messages

While these studies have used eye tracking to measure attention, other communication research has used a combination of methods. Researchers from Texas Tech University used facial electromyography (fEMG), electrocardiography (ECG) , and electrodermal activity (EDA) in order to assess affect in response to media messages [9].

They found that fEMG data provided reliable data regarding emotional state, while heart rate data collected from ECG indicated that negative messages received more attention than positive messages. The skin conductance data collected from EDA provided data that, together with a memory test, showed that the arousal level experienced was a greater predictor of memory retention for the media exposure, as compared to the valence experienced.

Increasing Engagement

Other research has also used arousal in order to understand the response to communication (for a review of some of these studies, see [10]). For example, researchers from Indiana University and the University of Wisconsin-Madison investigated responses to the number of edits within media using EDA and ECG [11]. They find that an increase of edits within the media can increase the encoding of the message without causing too much cognitive load , suggesting that media should feature a larger number of edits (where appropriate) to increase engagement.

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[1] Cooley, C. H. (1962). Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind . New York: Schocken (first published 1909).

[2] Ellwood, C. A. (1910). Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind. Charles Horton Cooley. The International Journal of Ethics , 20 : 2 ,  228-230.

[3] Berelson, B. (1952). Content analysis in communication research . Glencoe, IL: Free Press.

[4] Bauer, M. (2000) “Classical Content Analysis: A Review,” in M. Bauer and G. Gaskell (eds.), Qualitative Researching with Text, Image and Sound — A Handbook . London: SAGE. pp. 131—150.

[5] Park, D. W., & Pooley, J. (2008). The history of media and communication research: Contested memories . New York: Peter Lang.

[6] Hansen, A., Cottle, S., Negrine, R. and Newbold, C. (1998). Mass Communication Research Methods . London: Macmillan.

[7] Bol, N., Boerman, S. C., Romano Bergstrom, J. C., & Kruikemeier, S. (2016). An overview of how eye tracking is used in communication research. In M. Antona & C. Stephanidis (Eds.), International conference on universal access in human-computer interaction . Proceedings HCII 2016, Part I, LNCS 9737 ed. (pp. 421–429). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

[8] Coronel, J. C., & Federmeier, K. D. (2016). The Effects of Gender Cues and Political Sophistication on Candidate Evaluation: A Comparison of Self-Report and Eye Movement Measures of Stereotyping. Communication Research , 43(7), 922-944. doi:10.1177/0093650215604024.

[9] Bolls, P.D., Lang, A., & Potter, R.F. (2001). The effects of message valence and listener arousal on attention, memory, and facial muscular responses to radio advertisements. Communication Research , 28, 627-651.

[10] Ravaja, N. (2004). Contributions of psychophysiology to media research: Review and recommendations. Media Psychology , 6, 193-235.

[11] Lang, A., Zhou, S., Schwartz, N., Bolls, P. D., & Potter, R. F. (2000). The effects of edits on arousal, attention, and memory for television messages: When an edit is an edit can an edit be too much? Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 44(1), 94-109.

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Guide to Communication Research Methodologies: Quantitative, Qualitative and Rhetorical Research

Overview of Communication

Communication research methods, quantitative research, qualitative research, rhetorical research, mixed methodology.

Students interested in earning a graduate degree in communication should have at least some interest in understanding communication theories and/or conducting communication research. As students advance from undergraduate to graduate programs, an interesting change takes place — the student is no longer just a repository for knowledge. Rather, the student is expected to learn while also creating knowledge. This new knowledge is largely generated through the development and completion of research in communication studies. Before exploring the different methodologies used to conduct communication research, it is important to have a foundational understanding of the field of communication.

Defining communication is much harder than it sounds. Indeed, scholars have argued about the topic for years, typically differing on the following topics:

• Breadth : How many behaviors and actions should or should not be considered communication.
• Intentionality : Whether the definition includes an intention to communicate.
• Success : Whether someone was able to effectively communicate a message, or merely attempted to without it being received or understood.

However, most definitions discuss five main components, which include: sender, receiver, context/environment, medium, and message. Broadly speaking, communication research examines these components, asking questions about each of them and seeking to answer those questions.

As students seek to answer their own questions, they follow an approach similar to most other researchers. This approach proceeds in five steps: conceptualize, plan and design, implement a methodology, analyze and interpret, reconceptualize.

• Conceptualize : In the conceptualization process, students develop their area of interest and determine if their specific questions and hypotheses are worth investigating. If the research has already been completed, or there is no practical reason to research the topic, students may need to find a different research topic.
• Plan and Design : During planning and design students will select their methods of evaluation and decide how they plan to define their variables in a measurable way.
• Implement a Methodology : When implementing a methodology, students collect the data and information they require. They may, for example, have decided to conduct a survey study. This is the step when they would use their survey to collect data. If students chose to conduct a rhetorical criticism, this is when they would analyze their text.
• Analyze and Interpret : As students analyze and interpret their data or evidence, they transform the raw findings into meaningful insights. If they chose to conduct interviews, this would be the point in the process where they would evaluate the results of the interviews to find meaning as it relates to the communication phenomena of interest.
• Reconceptualize : During reconceptualization, students ask how their findings speak to a larger body of research — studies related to theirs that have already been completed and research they should execute in the future to continue answering new questions.

This final step is crucial, and speaks to an important tenet of communication research: All research contributes to a better overall understanding of communication and moves the field forward by enabling the development of new theories.

In the field of communication, there are three main research methodologies: quantitative, qualitative, and rhetorical. As communication students progress in their careers, they will likely find themselves using one of these far more often than the others.

Quantitative research seeks to establish knowledge through the use of numbers and measurement. Within the overarching area of quantitative research, there are a variety of different methodologies. The most commonly used methodologies are experiments, surveys, content analysis, and meta-analysis. To better understand these research methods, you can explore the following examples:

Experiments : Experiments are an empirical form of research that enable the researcher to study communication in a controlled environment. For example, a researcher might know that there are typical responses people use when they are interrupted during a conversation. However, it might be unknown as to how frequency of interruption provokes those different responses (e.g., do communicators use different responses when interrupted once every 10 minutes versus once per minute?). An experiment would allow a researcher to create these two environments to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question. As you can imagine, it would be very time consuming — and probably impossible — to view this and measure it in the real world. For that reason, an experiment would be perfect for this research inquiry.

Surveys : Surveys are often used to collect information from large groups of people using scales that have been tested for validity and reliability. A researcher might be curious about how a supervisor sharing personal information with his or her subordinate affects way the subordinate perceives his or her supervisor. The researcher could create a survey where respondents answer questions about a) the information their supervisors self-disclose and b) their perceptions of their supervisors. The data collected about these two variables could offer interesting insights about this communication. As you would guess, an experiment would not work in this case because the researcher needs to assess a real relationship and they need insight into the mind of the respondent.

Content Analysis : Content analysis is used to count the number of occurrences of a phenomenon within a source of media (e.g., books, magazines, commercials, movies, etc.). For example, a researcher might be interested in finding out if people of certain races are underrepresented on television. They might explore this area of research by counting the number of times people of different races appear in prime time television and comparing that to the actual proportions in society.

Meta-Analysis : In this technique, a researcher takes a collection of quantitative studies and analyzes the data as a whole to get a better understanding of a communication phenomenon. For example, a researcher might be curious about how video games affect aggression. This researcher might find that many studies have been done on the topic, sometimes with conflicting results. In their meta-analysis, they could analyze the existing statistics as a whole to get a better understanding of the relationship between the two variables.

Qualitative research is interested in exploring subjects’ perceptions and understandings as they relate to communication. Imagine two researchers who want to understand student perceptions of the basic communication course at a university. The first researcher, a quantitative researcher, might measure absences to understand student perception. The second researcher, a qualitative researcher, might interview students to find out what they like and dislike about a course. The former is based on hard numbers, while the latter is based on human experience and perception.

Qualitative researchers employ a variety of different methodologies. Some of the most popular are interviews, focus groups, and participant observation. To better understand these research methods, you can explore the following examples:

Interviews : This typically consists of a researcher having a discussion with a participant based on questions developed by the researcher. For example, a researcher might be interested in how parents exert power over the lives of their children while the children are away at college. The researcher could spend time having conversations with college students about this topic, transcribe the conversations and then seek to find themes across the different discussions.

Focus Groups : A researcher using this method gathers a group of people with intimate knowledge of a communication phenomenon. For example, if a researcher wanted to understand the experience of couples who are childless by choice, he or she might choose to run a series of focus groups. This format is helpful because it allows participants to build on one another’s experiences, remembering information they may otherwise have forgotten. Focus groups also tend to produce useful information at a higher rate than interviews. That said, some issues are too sensitive for focus groups and lend themselves better to interviews.

Participant Observation : As the name indicates, this method involves the researcher watching participants in their natural environment. In some cases, the participants may not know they are being studied, as the researcher fully immerses his or herself as a member of the environment. To illustrate participant observation, imagine a researcher curious about how humor is used in healthcare. This researcher might immerse his or herself in a long-term care facility to observe how humor is used by healthcare workers interacting with patients.

Rhetorical research (or rhetorical criticism) is a form of textual analysis wherein the researcher systematically analyzes, interprets, and critiques the persuasive power of messages within a text. This takes on many forms, but all of them involve similar steps: selecting a text, choosing a rhetorical method, analyzing the text, and writing the criticism.

To illustrate, a researcher could be interested in how mass media portrays “good degrees” to prospective college students. To understand this communication, a rhetorical researcher could take 30 articles on the topic from the last year and write a rhetorical essay about the criteria used and the core message argued by the media.

Likewise, a researcher could be interested in how women in management roles are portrayed in television. They could select a group of popular shows and analyze that as the text. This might result in a rhetorical essay about the behaviors displayed by these women and what the text says about women in management roles.

As a final example, one might be interested in how persuasion is used by the president during the White House Correspondent’s Dinner. A researcher could select several recent presidents and write a rhetorical essay about their speeches and how they employed persuasion during their delivery.

Taking a mixed methods approach results in a research study that uses two or more techniques discussed above. Often, researchers will pair two methods together in the same study examining the same phenomenon. Other times, researchers will use qualitative methods to develop quantitative research, such as a researcher who uses a focus group to discuss the validity of a survey before it is finalized.

The benefit of mixed methods is that it offers a richer picture of a communication phenomenon by gathering data and information in multiple ways. If we explore some of the earlier examples, we can see how mixed methods might result in a better understanding of the communication being studied.

Example 1 : In surveys, we discussed a researcher interested in understanding how a supervisor sharing personal information with his or her subordinate affects the way the subordinate perceives his or her supervisor. While a survey could give us some insight into this communication, we could also add interviews with subordinates. Exploring their experiences intimately could give us a better understanding of how they navigate self-disclosure in a relationship based on power differences.

Example 2 : In content analysis, we discussed measuring representation of different races during prime time television. While we can count the appearances of members of different races and compare that to the composition of the general population, that doesn’t tell us anything about their portrayal. Adding rhetorical criticism, we could talk about how underrepresented groups are portrayed in either a positive or negative light, supporting or defying commonly held stereotypes.

Example 3 : In interviews, we saw a researcher who explored how power could be exerted by parents over their college-age children who are away at school. After determining the tactics used by parents, this interview study could have a phase two. In this phase, the researcher could develop scales to measure each tactic and then use those scales to understand how the tactics affect other communication constructs. One could argue, for example, that student anxiety would increase as a parent exerts greater power over that student. A researcher could conduct a hierarchical regression to see how each power tactic effects the levels of stress experienced by a student.

As you can see, each methodology has its own merits, and they often work well together. As students advance in their study of communication, it is worthwhile to learn various research methods. This allows them to study their interests in greater depth and breadth. Ultimately, they will be able to assemble stronger research studies and answer their questions about communication more effectively.

Note : For more information about research in the field of communication, check out our Guide to Communication Research and Scholarship .

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Developing Effective Communication Skills

A practicing oncologist likely uses just about every medium to communicate. They talk on the phone, send e-mail messages, converse one-on-one, participate in meetings, and give verbal and written orders. And they communicate with many audiences—patients and their families, referring physicians, and office staff.

But are you communicating effectively? How do you handle differing or challenging perspectives? Are you hesitant to disagree with others, especially those in authority? Do you find meetings are a waste of time? What impression does your communication style make on the members of your group?

Be an Active Listener

The starting place for effective communication is effective listening. “Active listening is listening with all of one's senses,” says physician communication expert Kenneth H. Cohn, MD, MBA, FACS. “It's listening with one's eyes as well as one's years. Only 8% of communication is related to content—the rest pertains to body language and tone of voice.” A practicing surgeon as well as a consultant, Cohn is the author of Better Communication for Better Care and Collaborate for Success!

Kenneth H. Cohn, MD, MBA, FACS

Cohn suggests creating a setting in which “listening can be accommodating.” For example, don't have a conversation when one person is standing and one person is sitting—make sure your eyes are at the same level. Eliminate physical barriers, such as a desk, between you and the other party. Acknowledge the speaker with your own body language: lean forward slightly and maintain eye contact. Avoid crossing your arms, which conveys a guarded stance and may suggest arrogance, dislike, or disagreement.

When someone is speaking, put a premium on “being present.” Take a deep breath (or drink some water to keep from speaking) and create a mental and emotional connection between you and the speaker. “This is not a time for multitasking, but to devote all the time to that one person,” Cohn advises. “If you are thinking about the next thing you have to do or, worse, the next thing you plan to say, you aren't actively listening.”

Suspending judgment is also part of active listening, according to Cohn. Encourage the speaker to fully express herself or himself—free of interruption, criticism, or direction. Show your interest by inviting the speaker to say more with expressions such as “Can you tell me more about it?” or “I'd like to hear about that.”

Finally, reflect back to the speaker your understanding of what has been said, and invite elaboration and clarification. Responding is an integral part of active listening and is especially important in situations involving conflict.

In active listening, through both words and nonverbal behavior, you convey these messages to the speaker:

• I understand your problem
• I know how you feel about it
• I am interested in what you are saying
• I am not judging you

Communication Is a Process

Effective communication requires paying attention to an entire process, not just the content of the message. When you are the messenger in this process, you should consider potential barriers at several stages that can keep your intended audience from receiving your message.

Be aware of how your own attitudes, emotions, knowledge, and credibility with the receiver might impede or alter whether and how your message is received. Be aware of your own body language when speaking. Consider the attitudes and knowledge of your intended audience as well. Diversity in age, sex, and ethnicity or race adds to the communication challenges, as do different training backgrounds.

Individuals from different cultures may assign very different meanings to facial expressions, use of space, and, especially, gestures. For example, in some Asian cultures women learn that it is disrespectful to look people in the eye and so they tend to have downcast eyes during a conversation. But in the United States, this body language could be misinterpreted as a lack of interest or a lack of attention.

Choose the right medium for the message you want to communicate. E-mail or phone call? Personal visit? Group discussion at a meeting? Notes in the margin or a typed review? Sometimes more than one medium is appropriate, such as when you give the patient written material to reinforce what you have said, or when you follow-up a telephone conversation with an e-mail beginning, “As we discussed.…”

For one-on-one communication, the setting and timing can be critical to communicating effectively. Is a chat in the corridor OK, or should this be a closed-door discussion? In your office or over lunch? Consider the mindset and milieu of the communication receiver. Defer giving complex information on someone's first day back from vacation or if you are aware of situations that may be anxiety-producing for that individual. Similarly, when calling someone on the phone, ask initially if this is a convenient time to talk. Offer to set a specific time to call back later.

Finally, organize content of the message you want to communicate. Make sure the information you are trying to convey is not too complex or lengthy for either the medium you are using or the audience. Use language appropriate for the audience. With patients, avoid medical jargon.

Be Attuned to Body Language—Your Own and Others

Many nonverbal cues such as laughing, gasping, shoulder shrugging, and scowling have meanings that are well understood in our culture. But the meaning of some of these other more subtle behaviors may not be as well known. 1

Hand movements. Our hands are our most expressive body parts, conveying even more than our faces. In a conversation, moving your hand behind your head usually reflects negative thoughts, feelings, and moods. It may be a sign of uncertainty, conflict, disagreement, frustration, anger, or dislike. Leaning back and clasping both hands behind the neck is often a sign of dominance.

Blank face. Though theoretically expressionless, a blank face sends a strong do not disturb message and is a subtle sign to others to keep a distance. Moreover, many faces have naturally down turned lips and creases of frown lines, making an otherwise blank face appear angry or disapproving.

Smiling. Although a smile may show happiness, it is subject to conscious control. In the United States and other societies, for example, we are taught to smile whether or not we actually feel happy, such as in giving a courteous greeting.

Tilting the head back. Lifting the chin and looking down the nose are used throughout the world as nonverbal signs of superiority, arrogance, and disdain.

Parting the lips. Suddenly parting one's lips signals mild surprise, uncertainty, or unvoiced disagreement.

Lip compression. Pressing the lips together into a thin line may signal the onset of anger, dislike, grief, sadness, or uncertainty.

Build a Team Culture

In oncology, as in most medical practices, much of the work is done by teams. Communication within a team calls for clarifying goals, structuring responsibilities, and giving and receiving credible feedback.

“Physicians in general are at a disadvantage because we haven't been trained in team communication,” says Cohn. He points out that when he was in business school, as much as 30% to 50% of a grade came from team projects. “But how much of my grade in medical school was from team projects? Zero.”

The lack of systematic education about how teams work is the biggest hurdle for physicians in building a team culture, according to Cohn. “We've learned team behaviors from our clinical mentors, who also had no formal team training. The styles we learn most in residency training are ‘command and control’ and the ‘pace setting approach,’ in which the leader doesn't specify what the expectations are, but just expects people to follow his or her example.”

Cohn says that both of those styles limit team cohesion. “Recognizing one's lack of training is the first step [in overcoming the hurdle], then understanding that one can learn these skills. Listening, showing sincere empathy, and being willing to experiment with new leadership styles, such as coaching and developing a shared vision for the future are key.”

Stated goals and team values. An effective team is one in which everyone works toward a common goal. This goal should be clearly articulated. In patient care, of course, the goal is the best patient outcomes. But a team approach is also highly effective in reaching other goals in a physician practice, such as decreasing patient waiting times, recruiting patients for a clinical trial, or developing a community education program. Every member of the team must be committed to the team's goal and objectives.

Effective teams have explicit and appropriate norms, such as when meetings will be held and keeping information confidential. Keep in mind that it takes time for teams to mature and develop a climate of trust and mutual respect. Groups do not progress from forming to performing without going through a storming phase in which team members negotiate assumptions and expectations for behavior. 2

Clear individual expectations. All the team members must be clear about what is expected of them individually and accept their responsibility for achieving the goal. They should also understand the roles of others. Some expectations may relate to their regular job duties; others may be one-time assignments specific to the team goal. Leadership of the team may rotate on the basis of expertise.

Members must have resources available to accomplish their tasks, including time, education and equipment needed to reach the goal. Openly discuss what is required to get the job done and find solutions together as a team.

Empowerment. Everyone on the team should be empowered to work toward the goal in his or her own job, in addition to contributing ideas for the team as a whole. Physicians' instinct and training have geared them to solve problems and give orders—so they often try to have all the answers. But in an effective team, each team member feels ownership in the outcome and has a sense of shared accountability. Cohn notes, “You get a tremendous amount of energy and buy-in when you ask ‘What do you think?’”

Team members must trust each other with important tasks. This requires accepting others for who they are, being creative, and taking prudent risks. Invite team members to indicate areas in which they would like to take initiative. Empower them by giving them the freedom to exercise their own discretion.

Feedback. Providing feedback on performance is a basic tenet of motivation. For some goals, daily or weekly results are wanted, while for others, such as a report of the number of medical records converted to a new system or the average patient waiting times, a monthly report might be appropriate. Decide together as a team what outcomes should be reported and how often.

Positive reinforcement. Team members should encourage one another. Take the lead and set an example by encouraging others when they are down and praising them when they do well. Thank individuals for their contributions, both one on one and with the team as a whole. Celebrate milestones as a way to sustain team communication and cohesion.

Effective E-mail

E-mail has numerous features that make it a wonderful tool for communicating with a team: it is immediate; it is automatically time-stamped; and filing and organizing are easy. (E-mail with patients is a more complex topic and is not addressed herein.)

The e-mail subject line is an especially useful feature that is typically underused. Make it your best friend. Use it like a newspaper headline, to draw the reader in and convey your main point or alert the reader to a deadline. In the examples given below, the person receiving an e-mail headed “HCC” is likely to scroll past it—planning to read it on the weekend. The more helpful subject line alerts the reader to be prepared to discuss the topic at an upcoming meeting:

•      Vague Subject Line: HCC
•      More Helpful Subject Line: HCC Plan to discuss the SHARP trial this Friday—Your comments due December 5 on attached new policies

As with all written communication, the most important aspect to consider is the audience. Consider the knowledge and biases of the person/people you are e-mailing. Where will the reader be when he or she receives your message? How important is your message to the reader?

The purpose of writing is to engage the reader. You want the reader to do something, to know something, or to feel something. Write it in a way that helps the reader. Put the most important information—the purpose of the email—in the first paragraph.

Except among friends who know you well, stay away from sarcasm in e-mail messages. The receiver does not have the benefit of your tone of voice and body language to help interpret your communication. When delivering comments that are even slightly critical, it's better to communicate in person or in a phone call than to do so in an e-mail. Something you wrote with good intentions and an open mind or even with humor can be interpreted as nitpicky, negative, and destructive, and can be forwarded to others.

Because we use e-mail for its speed, it's easy to get in the habit of dashing off a message and hitting the “send” button. We count on the automatic spell-check (and you should have it turned on as your default option) to catch your errors. But spelling typos are the least of the problems in communicating effectively.

Take the time to read through your message. Is it clear? Is it organized? Is it concise? See if there is anything that could be misinterpreted or raises unanswered questions. The very speed with which we dash off e-mail messages makes e-mail the place in which we are most likely to communicate poorly.

Finally, don't forget to supply appropriate contact information, including phone numbers or alternative e-mail addresses, for responses or questions.

Conflict is inevitable in times of rapid change. Effective communication helps one avoid conflict and minimize its adverse consequences when it does occur. The next issue of Strategies for Career Success will cover conflict management.

What Not to Do When Listening:

• Allow distractions
• Use clichéd phrases such as “I know exactly how you feel,” “It's not that bad,” or “You'll feel better tomorrow”
• Get pulled into responding emotionally
• Change the subject or move in a new direction
• Rehearse in your head what you plan to say next
• Give advice

Make Meetings Work for Your Team

A good meeting is one in which team goals are introduced or reinforced and solutions are generated. The first rule—meet in person only if it's the best format to accomplish what you want. You don't need a meeting just to report information. Here are tips for facilitating an effective meeting:

Don't meet just because it's scheduled. If there are no issues to discuss, don't hold the meeting just because it's Tuesday and that's when you always meet.

Use an agenda. Circulate a timed agenda beforehand and append useful background information. Participants should know what to expect. If it's a short meeting or quickly called, put the agenda on a flipchart or board before people arrive.

Structure input. Promote the team culture by making different individuals responsible for specific agenda items. Follow-up on previous task assignments as the first agenda item to hold group members accountable for the team's success.

Limit the meeting time. Use the timed agenda to stay on track. If the discussion goes off on a tangent, bring the group back to the objective of the topic at hand. If it becomes clear that a topic needs more time, delineate the issues and the involved parties and schedule a separate meeting.

Facilitate discussion. Be sure everyone's ideas are heard and that no one dominates the discussion. If two people seem to talk only to each other and not to the group as a whole, invite others to comment. If only two individuals need to pursue a topic, suggest that they continue to work on that topic outside the meeting.

Set ground rules up front. Keep meetings constructive, not a gripe session. Do not issue reprimands, and make it clear that the meeting is to be positive and intended for updates, analysis, problem solving, and decision making. Create an environment in which disagreement and offering alternative perspectives are acceptable. When individuals do offer opposing opinions, facilitate open discussion that focuses on issues and not personalities.

Circulate a meeting summary before the next meeting. Formal minutes are appropriate for some meetings. But in the very least, a brief summary of actions should be prepared. Include decisions reached and assignments made, with deadlines for follow-up at the next meeting.

Kenneth H. Cohn: Better Communication for Better Care: Mastering Physician-Administrator Collaboration. Chicago, IL, Health Administration Press, 2005, www.ache.org/pubs/redesign/productcatalog.cfm?pc=WWW1-2038

Kenneth H. Cohn: Collaborate for Success! Breakthrough Strategies for Engaging Physicians, Nurses, and Hospital Executives. Chicago, IL, Health Administration Press, 2006, www.ache.org/hap.cfm

Suzette Haden Elgin: Genderspeak: Men, Women, and the Gentle Art of Verbal Self-Defense. Hoboken, NJ, Wiley, 1993

Jon R. Katzenbach, Douglas K. Smith: The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the High Performance Organization. New York, NY, Harper Business, 1994

Sharon Lippincott: Meetings: Do's, Don'ts, and Donuts. Pittsburgh, PA, Lighthouse Point Press, 1994

Kenneth W. Thomas: Intrinsic Motivation at Work: Building Energy and Commitment. San Francisco, CA, Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2000

More Strategies for Career Success!

Deciding About Practice Options—J Oncol Pract 2:187-190, 2006

The Interview: Make it Work for You—J Oncol Pract 2:252-254, 2006

Employment Contracts: What to Look for—J Oncol Pract 2:308-311, 2006

Principles and Tactics of Negotiation—J Oncol Pract 3:102-105, 2007

Professional Advisors: They're Worth It—J Oncol Pract 3:162-166, 2007

Building and Maintaining a Referral Base—J Oncol Pract 3:227-230, 2007

Malpractice Insurance: What You Need to Know—J Oncol Pract 3:274-277, 2007

Joining a Practice As a Shareholder—J Oncol Pract 3:41-44, 2007.

GatherContent is becoming Content Workflow by Bynder. Read More

Communicating research and its impact through content

Alexander Buxton

Head of strategic communications at the university of oxford, 7 minute read.

Interviewed by:

Table of contents

Collaborate

How to bring people together around digital projects.

Ellen de Vries

Brand and Content Strategist

Science and technology are embedded in virtually every aspect of modern life. Communications professionals and organisations producing research increasingly face the need to find creative ways to integrate their scientific achievements with their content strategy.

Effective science communication is particularly complex. It is highly dependent on what is being communicated, its relevance to those participating in the conversation, in addition to the social and media dynamic around the issues being addressed. This makes getting it right and deriving lessons that can be applied across issues and contexts particularly challenging.

This article aims to provide insights into the following questions:

What is research communication and why is it important?

What makes good research communications content.

• What is the future of research communications and where are we heading?

Five tips for communicating research and impact

Impact, outreach and research communications have become buzzwords in the higher education landscape where universities and researchers must deliver impact, engage with enterprise, and communicate their research to broader audiences.

In fact, plans for effective research communication are now required in many research funding applications. Additionally the Research Excellence Framework (REF), is looming in 2021, this is the system for assessing the quality of research in UK higher education institutions. Universities who aren’t communicating their research effectively could miss out on government research funding and the top spots in university rankings.

There is increasing pressure for universities to tell the innovation stories of their technology transfer, start-ups, spin-outs and the commercialisation of their research while simultaneously highlighting the opportunities for training and mentoring the next generation of entrepreneurs who will drive those new technologies forward.

If organisations hit the sweet spot when it comes to communicating their research achievements and activity, it can have a number of tangible business benefits. It can also positively grow their reputation and even influence policy decisions for the betterment of economies, societies and humanity. 

Research communications is a skilled activity addressing a range of audience groups. The skills and abilities to interpret complex findings and distill them into usable information for non-experts without over simplification and ‘dumbing down’, are essential for your content to engage these audiences.

To achieve results that further goals and objectives there are many factors to consider, most important is ensuring your content is relevant to your audience . Your audience will want to know how the research is useful to them or how it could change the lives of their constituents, readers and viewers.

When crafting the message, it is useful to keep in mind your objective – what you want to get across to the audience, the relevance – what does the audience want to know about this story and clarity – what could this audience get wrong unless you stress the right information.

Timing is also key. There can be a temptation to communicate when findings are ready to share and when it is convenient to do so, but information that is relevant to these audiences is best communicated when they are ready and willing to listen.

There are a raft of content formats available to deliver research communications ranging from:

• Press releases
• Case studies
• Podcasts and videos
• Events, briefings and exhibitions

The audiences for research communications vary depending on the type of research but tailoring the message, content, channel and timing can be crucial to reaching them. Potential audience groups identified in the Department for International Development (DFID)’s working paper Research Communication Insights from Practice include;

Researchers who are involved in similar areas of study and research, who may well use and develop research findings further and then pass them on.

Research organisations and educational institutions which can encourage their staff and students to engage, analyse and discuss issues around the relevance and impact of research findings.

Intermediaries such as Non Governmental Organisations (NGO’s) play a key role in reaching policy makers when research findings are processed into policy briefings and similar outputs.

Funding agencies, research councils, charities and major donors have the power to provide crucial financial support to universities and research projects.

Industry decision makers and industrial scientists are key users of research who can facilitate collaborative projects on real world problems and often funding. ‍ Influencers include the traditional media and digital publishers who can reach out to a much wider audience.

The future of research communications

Looking at some of the wider trends in communications identified in the Reuters News Institute for the study of journalism’s report: Journalism, Media, and Technology Trends and Predictions 2020 it is clear that technology advances will present opportunities for content creators and research communicators.

The report identifies that better, more immersive, feature-rich headphones (e.g. AirPod Pro and similar devices) will prove to be a big tech hit this year, giving a boost to audio formats like podcasts. Transcription and automated translation will be some of the first AI-driven technologies to reach mass adoption, opening up new frontiers and opportunities.

It also suggests that thanks to 5G rollout, faster and more reliable smartphone connectivity, will make it ever easier to access multimedia content on the go. Advances in technology will soon enable AI driven news pages to be tailored to visitor interests, presenting yet more opportunities to reach intended audiences. 

Looking more closely at crafting research communications the Pew Research Center performed a study on ‘ the science people see on social media ’ across 30 science related social media pages with between 3 million and 44 million followers. Here’s what they found: New scientific discoveries are covered in 29% of the posts on these pages. Fully 21% of posts featured the practical applications of science information, framed as “news you can use.” Another 16% of posts were promotions or advertisements for media or events and 12% of posts were aimed at explaining a science-related concept.

Throughout the study, video was a common feature of the most highly engaging posts whether they were aimed at explaining a scientific concept, highlighting new discoveries, or showcasing ways people can put science information to use in their lives. 

Here are some examples of some great research communications video content that;

1.   Feature interesting people

2.   Do the unexpected

3.   Simplify the science

4.   Use wonder

5.   Make researchers the hero

6.   Make it relatable

7.   Make it shareable

The timing, content type and quality of the science may not be the only factors that influence decision making. There is a need to make existing information more accessible and to analyse and synthesise research to provide tailored content.

There is also a need for more harmonised and effective communication of research across institutions using agreed language, tools and standards.

Ultimately knowledge is power. It is important to remember the ability to communicate research findings should be regarded as a public good on par with creating new knowledge. Because, if pioneering research is able to solve a grand challenge facing people and planet, but nobody knows about it, how can it help? 

• Know your audience, focus and organise your information for them
• Focus on the big picture such as the major ideas or issues the work addresses 
• Avoid jargon, try to avoid technical terms and keep the language simple
• Try to use metaphors or analogies to everyday experiences that people can relate to
• Underscore how the research can be applied or how it can inform effective policy making

The research landscape can be complex but if done correctly, conveying the benefits to society of research, teaching and innovation can be particularly rewarding for organisations, researchers and communications professionals. 

Webinar Recording

Clarity in higher education: every written word represents your brand, watch this webinar to learn how to create information about your university that is clear, concise, and credible. including: how to create policies, disclosures, and other non-marketing content that is easy for students, faculty, or the public to understand., june 4, 2020.

About the author

Alexander Buxton is a communications strategist and consultant with over ten years experience in communications roles within the public and the private sector. Through speaking, writing, and training programs he offers insights into contemporary issues in content strategy, content creation, and communication technology.

Alex is Head of Strategic Communications at the University of Oxford. Prior to joining the Public Affairs Directorate at Oxford, Alex spent two years as a senior advisor for global branding and communications working with universities in the Middle East, three years leading on research communications for the University of Warwick and five years implementing communications strategy with UK emergency services and the private sector. He has related qualifications from Oxford Brookes University, the Chartered Institute of Marketing and the Yale School of Management.

Connect with Alex on LinkedIn , Twitter @ADBComms or at alexander-buxton.com

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 28.5.2024 in Vol 8 (2024)

Health Care Professionals’ Experiences With Using Information and Communication Technologies in Patient Care During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Qualitative Study

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Carly A Cermak 1, 2 , MClSc, PhD   ; 
• Heather Read 1 , PhD   ; 
• Lianne Jeffs 1, 2, 3 , RN, PhD  

1 Science of Care Institute, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON, Canada

2 Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON, Canada

3 Institute of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Corresponding Author:

Carly A Cermak, MClSc, PhD

Science of Care Institute

Sinai Health

1 Bridgepoint Drive

Toronto, ON, M4M 2B5

Phone: 1 4165864800

Email: [email protected]

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic acted as a catalyst for the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in inpatient and outpatient health care settings. Digital tools were used to connect patients, families, and providers amid visitor restrictions, while web-based platforms were used to continue care amid COVID-19 lockdowns. What we have yet to learn is the experiences of health care providers (HCPs) regarding the use of ICT that supported changes to clinical care during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Objective: The aim of this paper was to describe the experiences of HCPs in using ICT to support clinical care changes during the COVID-19 pandemic. This paper is reporting on a subset of a larger body of data that examined changes to models of care during the pandemic.

Methods: This study used a qualitative, descriptive study design. In total, 30 HCPs were recruited from 3 hospitals in Canada. One-on-one semistructured interviews were conducted between December 2022 and June 2023. Qualitative data were analyzed using an inductive thematic approach to identify themes across participants.

Results: A total of 30 interviews with HCPs revealed 3 themes related to their experiences using ICT to support changes to clinical care during the COVID-19 pandemic. These included the use of ICT (1) to support in-person communication with patients, (2) to facilitate connection between provider to patient and patient to family, and (3) to provide continuity of care.

Conclusions: HCP narratives revealed the benefits of digital tools to support in-person communication between patient and provider, the need for thoughtful consideration for the use of ICT at end-of-life care, and the decision-making that is needed when choosing service delivery modality (eg, web based or in person). Moving forward, organizations are encouraged to provide education and training on how to support patient-provider communication, find ways to meet patient and family wishes at end-of-life care, and continue to give autonomy to HCPs in their clinical decision-making regarding service delivery modality.

Introduction

The health care workforce had to quickly adapt to the COVID-19 pandemic, with health systems grappling with the provision of COVID-19 care at the same time as non-COVID-19 care. Restrictions to reduce the spread of COVID-19 put an additional strain on the health care system. Health care providers (HCPs) were left to problem-solve how to continue providing compassionate, connected care among layers of personal protective equipment and visitor restrictions. Fortunately, the COVID-19 pandemic was a catalyst for digital health to support the ongoing response to the COVID-19 pandemic, with web-based care emerging as the primary innovation of information and communication technology (ICT) used in medical care [ 1 , 2 ]. Uses of ICT in medical care include remote consultations, digital noninvasive care, and digital platforms for data sharing [ 3 ].

ICT played an important role in supporting changes to clinical care within inpatient and outpatient health care settings. Within inpatient settings, ICT was integral in maintaining connectivity between patients, families, and providers when changes to visitor policies were implemented [ 4 ]. For example, the use of mobile devices and tablets allowed for connection between patient and family and supported knowledge transfer between provider and family [ 5 ]. Within outpatient settings, ICT was integral in continuing care when COVID-19 lockdown restrictions limited in-person visits [ 1 ]. For example, videoconference and telemedicine services (ie, web-based care) emerged as a platform for providers to use to allow for remote care [ 1 ]. In both facets, ICT facilitated connection, acting as an essential link between patients, families, and providers. However, we have yet to learn of HCPs’ experiences in using ICT to support clinical care.

Learning from the experiences of HCPs’ use of ICT will offer valuable insights into how innovative uses of ICT might continue to be used in inpatient and outpatient health care settings moving forward. From here, uses of ICT can inform organizational leadership of the systems or processes that may require further investigation to support ICT use in clinical care in a postpandemic world. The main objective of the study was to examine changes to models of care during the pandemic from the perspectives of HCPs, implementation team members, and leaders across 3 Canadian hospitals. For this paper, we report on a storyline that emerged from this work to describe the experiences of HCPs’ use of ICT that supported changes to clinical care during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Study Design

This qualitative descriptive study was undertaken from March 2022 to June 2023 to understand changes to models of care during the COVID-19 pandemic through the experiences of HCPs, implementation team members, and leaders across 3 hospitals in Canada. This paper is reporting on a subset of data related to HCPs’ experiences of using ICT in supporting changes to clinical care, drawn from the larger study that explored changes to models of care that took place during the COVID-19 pandemic. The reporting of this study was guided by the Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research [ 6 ].

Sampling and Participant Recruitment

In total, 30 HCPs were recruited from critical care, inpatient, and ambulatory services across 3 hospitals in Canada. A purposeful sampling strategy was used where recruiting took place in organizations that were known to have been affected by COVID-19 restrictions and policies. Site leads at participating institutions disseminated study information to HCPs (eg, nurses, physicians, and allied health disciplines) working within their respective health care organizations. From here, interview participants self-referred to this study. Inclusion criteria included current employment as an HCP working at the health care organization over the course of the pandemic and postpandemic recovery.

Data Collection

One-on-one, semistructured interviews were conducted by members of the research team (Kang Kang Margolese, Marina Morris, Lily Zeng, Marie Oliveira, Adebisi Akande, HR, Frances Bruno, or CAC) between December 2022 and June 2023. Demographic information, including age, gender, ethnicity, health discipline, time in profession, time in organization, and time in current role, was collected from all participants before the interview to ensure diversity within the sample. An interview guide was developed by the research team that explored the following five areas: (1) changes to care (eg, “What was your role like before the pandemic? How did care change over the course of the last 3 years?”), (2) provisions of care (eg, “What did you/your team start/stop doing? How did you prioritize care?”), (3) emotions (eg, “How did care change feel for you/your team? What supports were available to you?”), (4) implementation and evaluation (eg, “How were changes implemented and evaluated?”), and (5) lessons that were learned or future recommendations.

Data collection was completed by nonclinical research staff (Kang Kang Margolese, Marina Morris, Lily Zeng, Adebisi Akande, and HR) and clinical research staff (Marie Oliveira, Frances Bruno, and CAC). Data collection was concluded when saturation of themes was reached, meaning that limited new insights emerged from existing themes with the collected data sample [ 7 ]. The interviews were conducted via either a videoconferencing platform or in person and were approximately 45 to 60 minutes in length.

Ethical Considerations

Ethics was formally reviewed and approved by Sinai Health’s Research Ethics Board (REB# 22-0153-E), as well as at each participating site: Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre (REB# 5571) and Providence Health Care (REB# H22-02792). Participants were informed that participation in this study was completely voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Verbal informed consent was obtained before the start of the interviews, and participants were given an electronic gift card in recognition of their time. The honorarium for participants was CAD $20 (US $26.4). Demographic information was collected from all participants before the interview. These data were anonymized and stored separately from the transcripts, which were deidentified and stored on a secure server.

Data Analysis

The research design was conceived within an interpretivist paradigm, where the researchers’ purpose was to gather insight into how clinical care changed during the COVID-19 pandemic through the learning of the experiences of participants [ 8 ]. Interviews were analyzed using an inductive thematic analysis approach, which included openly coding line by line to organize data in a meaningful, systematic way; examining the codes to identify themes; and reviewing the themes [ 9 ]. Specifically, the entire research team openly coded a small group of interviews (n=3) independently, line by line, and then met as a group to review codes, discuss themes, and develop an initial codebook through consensus. From here, the research team coded the bulk of the interviews in pairs, meeting as needed to ensure the reliability of coding, using the primary investigator (LJ) to triangulate and resolve any discrepancies as needed.

Reflexivity was demonstrated through regular debriefs of interviews and a review of the codebook at 1- to 2-week intervals during the coding process. Primary adjustments were additions of new codes as interviews were collected from new participant subgroups. For example, the initial codebook was derived from nurse interviews, and new codes were required as the project expanded into allied health disciplines. Codes that related to HCPs’ experiences of ICT included disciplinary changes, technical changes and innovations, improvisation, problem-solving, tools, and technology recommendations. NVivo software (QSR International) was used to facilitate the cross-synthesis analysis. As a final step of analysis to ensure saturation and methodological rigor, the primary investigator for the study (LJ) reviewed the emergent coding schema with the original transcripts.

Participant Characteristics

A total of 30 participants (site A: n=4, site B: n=14, and site C: n=12) described their experiences of how ICT supported changes to clinical care. Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics. Themes generated from participants included the use of ICT (1) for supporting in-person communication with patients; (2) for enabling connection between patients, providers, and families; and (3) for providing continuity of care amid COVID-19 restrictions.

a HCP: health care provider.

b Participant self-identified; categories were not provided.

Supporting In-Person Communication With Patients

Participants described how tablets supported in-person communication to mitigate the impact that personal protective equipment (PPE) had on verbal interactions with patients. PPE such as masks, Plexiglas, and visors posed challenges in communicating effectively, particularly for patients who were hard of hearing or who had difficulties with comprehension. Efforts to support communication were essential as communication breakdowns created confusion for the patients with detrimental consequences:

And so when talking to elderly people, when they can’t read your lips or when they can’t really hear you through three layers of protective equipment, they get very confused and multiple confusing events leads to possible more agitation and agitation leads to an automatic write-off from a lot of health care providers as to a reason why not to provide a certain person with care. [Site B, 01, physiotherapist]

Participants described coming up with innovative ways to facilitate communication amid the layers of PPE, with tablets and phones used to break down communication barriers. Applications such as speech to text allowed live transcription of providers’ speech, which can be used as a tool to support comprehension for patients who were hearing impaired. Further, speech-to-text applications provided patients and families a model of how this tool can be used to support communication outside of the hospital setting:

And so, this [iPads] has been a huge help...it helps people, patients who haven’t heard of this...they go home with a brand-new strategy that makes their daily life so much easier. [Site C, 08, social worker]

In addition to using tablets to support communication with patients who were hard of hearing, participants also expressed the value of using tablets for translation services for patients who did not speak English. Benefits included the convenience of dialing translation services from an iPad:

We have translation services on them [iPads]...which has been so, so wonderful to have to just go into someone’s room who doesn’t speak English...And just call up this interpretation service, have a human being there and that was really a key. [Site C, 29, spiritual health practitioner]

Challenges surfaced when both a videoconferencing platform and translation services were required—specifically, the difficulties in handling 2 ICT tools simultaneously and the need to prioritize videoconferencing all the while hoping that family members were relaying information correctly:

...you can’t hold a Zoom, you know, iPad and then hold a translator phone to it, you know what I mean? So then it became family trying to find someone at their end who could relay information. [Site B, 13, occupational therapist]

Enabling Connection Between Patients, Providers, and Families

Participants described how digital devices facilitated the connection between provider to family and provider to patient during visitor restrictions. This included using phones and iPads to connect families to their loved ones in hospitals, especially at end-of-life care. Participants also described that providing a digital connection to families at end-of-life care was a service that could help families move through the grief process.

...we facilitated a FaceTime and all kinds of video calls for people to be able to talk to their loved ones. And even to their religious leaders in certain cases...Families were not able to be with a loved one when they were dying…we were a bridge between them. [Site B, 07, spiritual care]

...we recorded a memorial service that was generic and was put up on YouTube and we could send the link...And so many people just didn’t have the needed ritual to move through grief. And that was something that we could give them and that was—we received so much good feedback and gratitude for that. [Site C, 29, spiritual health practitioner]

While there were benefits of tablet use to connect families to patients at end-of-life care, a digital connection created an internal struggle for HCPs as they witnessed the lack of physical touch and difficulties in accommodating end-of-life rituals:

I feel like I struggled when I had to use an iPad to connect patients to family members and it could be in a very vulnerable situation, like a patient was dying, he doesn’t speak English, the daughter’s on the iPad, she’s crying, she can’t hold her dad, can’t hold his hand...I think we have to recognize that...there is a rite of passage before somebody dies. There are certain steps for religious people and families that need to happen to honour a dying body for them to move on to wherever that place is...So anointing, communion, confession. Those are not things that are amenable to a Zoom method. [Site B, 12, nursing]

Further, participants expressed the challenges with navigating the frequency of communication between patient and family, such as balancing family requests with staffing resources within the hospital:

...when you had multiple family members who each wanted their turn to visit once a week. Well, you know, you don’t have staff to be able to support five Facetimes per resident. So, we started to have to limit it and say...like two Facetimes a week for a family, or for a resident...So, that was a challenge. [Site B, 05, social worker]

Providing Continuity of Care

Participants described how the use of videoconferencing platforms such as Zoom (Zoom Video Communications) enhanced communication between providers and families, such as when needing to provide medical updates or discharge recommendations. Zoom provided accessible options for patients with hearing or comprehension challenges using closed captioning. Furthermore, Zoom enabled more efficient and faster communication between the care team and family, rather than being faced with the complexities of coordinating schedules of team members and families who may be coming in from out of town:

It [Zoom] optimized our efficiency for delivering family meetings...the specialist physicians were able to attend more of these family meetings than in the past, because of the ability to attend virtually. And then, more family were able to attend than...in the past. And it was able to happen faster because we could do it virtually versus waiting several days for a family member to arrive from another city. [Site B, 13, occupational therapist]

Participants also expressed the benefits of web-based care for patient access, particularly for patients with mobility challenges or lack of transportation:

I can actually say that shift [to virtual] was very positive because...it actually eliminated some of the concerns my patients have about transportation, or ways that they’re able to get out there, be it because of their physical impairment post-operation. Or simply just because they don’t have the resources to get transit for whatever reason. [Site A, 23, social worker]

Further, some participants expressed how web-based care positively changed clinical practice for counseling services:

And from all the patients I’ve intervened with...I’d say .01% want to come in person...I find that on Zoom you can sort of see the environment they’re in...I think that COVID has revolutionized social work intervention...I only have good things to say about it. COVID has opened up a whole new world for counseling. [Site B, 15, social worker]

Web-based care was not without its challenges. Clinicians described that greater access to care increased referrals from patients who would historically not come for in-person treatment, particularly for mental health services:

...we found that we were getting more referrals from ... all these different patients who would have not been able to come to hospital to do in-person groups...people with anxiety disorders, like agoraphobia. People who had not seen—have difficulty going outside the house. [Site A, 16, nursing]

...the workload increased enormously, and was impossible to keep up with because before people had to come in to [the hospital] to see me so that actually restricted the number of people that I could see to people who lived in [the city], or in some neighbouring communities. At times, people would come in and come drive like 90 to 120 minutes to come and see me but due to Covid, when we shifted to online therapy...now, everybody in [the province] had access to me who were part of these programs...many people wanted to see the psychologist because they wouldn’t have to drive in. [Site C, 16, psychologist]

Consequently, participants described that more visits over Zoom led to greater fatigue as a result of having to simultaneously navigate Zoom and in-person teaching, resulting in a reduction in group therapy frequency:

We noticed for us clinicians we were just getting so fatigued that it was just too much. Because running a group in-person, and running it over Zoom is very, very different. You’re staring at a screen, you’re looking at all the faces in the room. You’re trying to navigate the PowerPoint, there’s a lot of things happening simultaneously, that when we were doing four groups a week we just noticed this is not sustainable for us. So we had to shift it to three groups. So one less group a week. So I think that’s a huge change in terms of provision of care. [Site A, 16, nursing]

In terms of providing clinical care, clinicians described the challenges of conducting a physical assessment or providing counseling treatment via Zoom or by phone:

We do some physical examination. So it’s hard just to understand the status just by phone, even if you ask them “Any swelling?” Then they say no but actually they have, so the knowledge may not be there. [Site C, 10, registered dietician]

...in Zoom it’s very limited and you mostly see the face. Right? You don’t see what the person is doing with their hands, arms, with their legs, with their feet. [Site B, 07, spiritual care practitioner]

It’s just something about being in the same room with someone when their emotions are high that you don’t actually have to do anything in particular, but just the calming presence makes a difference. I think that people get some of that on Zoom...I don’t know how similar or different, but I’m just assuming that it’s probably a bit watered down...Whereas if I was just in the room, I think just being quiet with the person would be enough and might be even better at times. [Site C, 16, psychologist]

Finally, clinicians described the challenges of using web-based care when working with older patients due to limited experiences with technology or cognitive impairments. Interestingly, some participants felt that the reliance on web-based care reduced the attendance of older populations who were not familiar with the technology.

...our average age is 97, they’re not tech savvy, they’re not necessarily understanding, comprehending, you know, that, you know, as we would understand that you can actually talk to someone who’s not present here, but it’s in the same time...So, I would call it, you’re having a video call. I try and explain it’s that, you’re having a video telephone call. And then, they just think they’re looking at a television, you know, and they’re just watching kind of a show and stuff. [Site B, 10, recreation therapist]

Some of our clients—some people with dementia don’t understand...either they don’t recognize themselves, or they get agitated by the sight of themselves—so having the person facilitating the Zoom understand how to turn off the view that you can see yourself, was important...I think I lost a number of older spouses that used to come to the group, because they...had difficulty understanding the technology, or just their digital literacy, or access to technology wasn’t that great. So currently...and interestingly, that has changed the demographic of people who are coming in my Caregiver Group. [Site B, 08, social worker]

Principal Findings

The aim of this qualitative descriptive study was to describe the experiences of HCPs in how ICT supported changes to clinical care during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participant narratives revealed 3 key findings: the benefits of digital tools to support in-person communication between patient and provider, the need for thoughtful consideration for the use of ICT at end-of-life care, and the support for the continued use of web-based care, when appropriate. We discuss HCPs’ experiences as they relate to the literature and provide recommendations for health care organizations that can make use of ICT in a more collaborative way while reflecting on patient and family values.

Communication between patients and providers is essential for quality care and for reducing preventable adverse medical events [ 10 ]. Patients who have been appropriately supported in their communication have reported to be more satisfied in their hospital stay [ 11 ]. Devices to assist with communication, more commonly referred to as alternative augmentative communication (AAC), have existed in health care for decades. AAC is an intervention approach for individuals who require added support (augmentative) or a replacement (alternative) for their communication [ 12 ]. AAC can be low technology such as communication boards or pictures or high technology such as communication systems on iPads and speech-generation devices and can be used for a short or long period of time depending on the individual’s communication needs [ 12 ].

The COVID-19 pandemic spawned a rapid adoption of digital tools such as tablets, which became an available tool to reduce communication barriers experienced with mask-wearing when speaking to patients and families and allow for participation in conversation. Additionally, tablets enabled access to video language interpretation for patients who were mechanically ventilated and awake [ 13 ], a unique example of reducing language barriers when families were not able to be present for interpretation. However, participant narratives using digital tools within acute care and rehabilitation contrast the literature describing the experiences of patients and families in the intensive care unit. In the intensive care unit, HCPs and families reported barriers to the implementation of communication supports, particularly for patients who were mechanically ventilated and awake [ 14 ]. Nurses reported feeling inadequate and frustrated in trying to support patients [ 14 ], whereas families reported frustration with communication breakdowns, inconsistent availability of tools, and insufficient training by the HCP [ 15 ]. Patients described being mechanically ventilated as a vulnerable, lonely, and fearful experience [ 15 ], particularly as verbal communication was not an option.

The collective experiences of nurses, families, and patients emphasize the impact that a lack of communication supports can have at the bedside. Further, the experiences of nurses, families, and patients shed light on the education and training that is needed for successful patient-provider communication to support participation in conversation, particularly for patients on mechanical ventilation. Reports from speech-language pathologists working with patients who are critically ill revealed positive patient-provider communication outcomes when there was nurse collaboration and readily available communication supports at the bedside [ 13 ]. Thus, the experiences of patients, families, and HCPs highlight the integral role that leadership and hospital policies play in prioritizing communication access, tool availability, and organizational-wide training [ 13 , 16 ]. For system-level change, it is recommended that hospital leaders develop regular staff training on communication supports led by professionals with expertise in this area such as speech-language pathologists [ 14 ]. For increased awareness on the importance of communication supports in health care, it is recommended that education on patient-provider communication starts as early as the undergraduate and postgraduate level for health discipline (ie, clinical) programs [ 14 ].

Videoconferencing tools have been used to connect loved ones for over a decade and have been shown to have positive psychosocial outcomes for nursing home residents when used as an addition to in-person family visits [ 17 ]. Specifically, older residents in nursing homes who received videoconferencing visits with family in addition to in-person family visits had a greater mean change in baseline depressive symptoms and feelings of loneliness when compared to older residents who had in-person visits only [ 17 ]. During the pandemic, however, videoconferencing tools and digital devices were used as a substitute for in-person visits due to visitor restrictions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Although this enabled a connection between patient and family, the reduced frequency of family connections created tensions between both HCPs and family members.

Similar tensions were described by HCPs in the United Kingdom including communicating devastating news to relatives without having ever met them in person and the moral dilemma of what is “best” end-of-life care versus what could be offered given the COVID-19 restrictions [ 18 ]. Further, clinicians in Canada reported that web-based visits at end-of-life care prevented meaningful conversations typically had between family members at the bedside [ 19 ]. One physician described the importance of family connection in end-of-life care: “I’m now convinced that family members at the bedside improves patients’ ability to get better” [ 19 ]. The experiences of bereaved relatives aligned with the internal conflicts of HCPs in the United Kingdom: families wanted frequent communication that was easy to understand, one last chance to say goodbye through physical touch, and speaking to their loved one at bedside [ 20 ]. Similarly in Canada, HCPs, patients, and families all felt that restrictive acute care visitor policies impacted the safety and quality of care, mental health of everyone involved, families as partners in care, and communication and advocacy [ 4 ].

Although COVID-19 visitor restrictions have lifted, the experiences described by clinicians and families highlight the considerations needed for a positive, meaningful, end-of-life experience. One example of an organizational-wide intervention for end-of-life care includes the 3 Wishes Project (3WP), an intervention that gathers 3 wishes from the patient and family to help personalize and humanize end-of-life care [ 21 ]. The 3WP has demonstrated a positive impact on families and clinicians; families had a significantly higher rating of emotional and spiritual support than families who did not receive the 3WP [ 22 ], while clinicians reported greater morale and collaboration in helping families move toward acceptance [ 23 ]. Further, the 3WP has shown to build capacity for compassion at the organization level by facilitating collective noticing, feeling, and responding [ 24 ]. In other words, the implementation of 3WP creates system-level processes and structures to facilitate compassionate care while promoting the connection between patients, families, and HCPs [ 24 ]. Thus, while the use of digital devices will likely continue to be a complement to care [ 25 ], it is important that organizations encourage collective, compassionate care to meet the wishes of patients and families.

Literature describing the benefits and challenges of web-based care aligned with participant narratives. Benefits included faster access to care, greater efficiency, and improved convenience for patients [ 26 ]; challenges included conducting assessments without the ability to complete in-person physical examinations [ 26 ] and offering web-based care to patients with poor digital literacy [ 27 - 29 ]. What was unique to this study’s findings was the increase in referral rates with the implementation of web-based care. Two reasons for an increase in referrals as described by participants included greater access for patients with significant mental health needs who otherwise would not come in for services and greater access for patients living far away from the hospital. Consequently, more referrals increased the workload of HCPs, demonstrating the dichotomy between patient access to care and provider workload. This emphasizes the considerations needed to balance clinician workload with patient preference of service modality as organizations move toward hybrid models of care [ 25 ].

A recent US study examined patient preference for service modality for nonurgent care and found that when out-of-pocket costs were not a factor, slightly more than half of the sample (53%) preferred in-person visits to web-based care, while one-fifth (21%) preferred web-based and one-quarter (26%) had no preference or did not know what they preferred [ 30 ]. For individuals who had video visit experience, this was associated with their preference for video visits [ 30 ]. A closer look at demographic factors revealed that those who did not feel that video calls had a role in their medical care were generally older people, who lived rurally, and who had a lower income and educational level [ 30 ]. Conversely, patients who were younger and had a higher income and education were more likely to choose a video visit over in-person care [ 30 ]. While choice of service modality may be an option for nonurgent care moving forward, some populations may not have the same ability to choose. Rather, it is up to the HCP to decide whether web-based care is appropriate.

HCPs, such as psychiatrists, who work with patients with significant mental health disorders have described the role that contextual factors contribute to decision-making of service modality [ 31 ]. Contextual factors in decision-making included if an in-person visit provided greater therapeutic benefit than a web-based visit, if a general examination was needed, if there were caregivers nearby who could provide information, if insight into the living environment was necessary, and if safety resources were required for in-person visits [ 31 ]. There was no consensus among psychiatrists on the mental health conditions that would best be served, as some respondents felt web-based care offered unique benefits such as improved patient safety and reduced likelihood of escalation [ 31 ]. Taken together, a combination of factors will need to continue to be considered for service delivery modality moving forward, such as patient preference, nature of service provided, and technology literacy. Furthermore, thoughtful planning for the accessibility of technology use for underserved populations will likely be an element of consideration for the field of health care [ 32 ].

Limitations

First, this study is limited to the experiences of the HCP from urban hospitals in Ontario and British Columbia and may not be transferable to the full scope of pandemic hospital worker experiences across the globe. Consequently, there may have been uses of ICT that happened during the pandemic that were particularly novel or interesting but may not have been captured due to the nature of this qualitative study. Second, participants were given an electronic gift card after the interview in recognition of their time, which may have impacted self-referral into the study. Third, there were several research team members involved in interviews, which may have impacted the depth of information provided by the participants across interviews.

Conclusions

Experiences from HCP highlight the uses of ICT to support changes to clinical care during the pandemic. The use of digital tools supported patient-provider communication, enabled a connection between patients and families at end-of-life care, and provided continuity of care amid COVID-19 lockdowns. Moving forward, organizations are encouraged to provide education and training on how to support patient-provider communication in clinical care; find ways to implement collaborative, compassionate, end-of-life care; and continue to give autonomy to HCPs in their clinical decision-making regarding service delivery modality.

Acknowledgments

This study was funded by a grant from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (W12179927). The authors would like to thank the participants who took time to reflect on the difficult experiences they and their colleagues faced during the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors would also like to thank the research team of Kang Kang Margolese, Marina Morris, Lily Zeng, Marie Oliveira, Adebisi Akande, and Frances Bruno who contributed to the data collection and analysis.

Data Availability

An aggregate summary of data generated and analyzed during this study are included in this published manuscript. Individual data transcripts cannot be publicly shared because of confidentiality.

Authors' Contributions

LJ conceived and designed the study and assisted with data analysis. CAC and HR assisted with data collection and data analysis. CAC drafted the manuscript, and all authors critically reviewed it as well as read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

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Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 24.09.23; peer-reviewed by A Ševčíková, H Pilabré, A Olsson; comments to author 02.12.23; revised version received 06.03.24; accepted 21.03.24; published 28.05.24.

©Carly A Cermak, Heather Read, Lianne Jeffs. Originally published in JMIR Formative Research (https://formative.jmir.org), 28.05.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in JMIR Formative Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://formative.jmir.org, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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Nikhil is an intern consultant at Marktechpost. He is pursuing an integrated dual degree in Materials at the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. Nikhil is an AI/ML enthusiast who is always researching applications in fields like biomaterials and biomedical science. With a strong background in Material Science, he is exploring new advancements and creating opportunities to contribute.

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Title: fpspin: an fpga-based open-hardware research platform for processing in the network.

Abstract: In the era of post-Moore computing, network offload emerges as a solution to two challenges: the imperative for low-latency communication and the push towards hardware specialisation. Various methods have been employed to offload protocol- and data-processing onto network interface cards (NICs), from firmware modification to running full Linux on NICs for application execution. The sPIN project enables users to define handlers executed upon packet arrival. While simulations show sPIN's potential across diverse workloads, a full-system evaluation is lacking. This work presents FPsPIN, a full FPGA-based implementation of sPIN. FPsPIN is showcased through offloaded MPI datatype processing, achieving a 96% overlap ratio. FPsPIN provides an adaptable open-source research platform for researchers to conduct end-to-end experiments on smart NICs.

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General election guidance 2024: guidance for civil servants (HTML)

Updated 23 May 2024

© Crown copyright 2024

This publication is licensed under the terms of the Open Government Licence v3.0 except where otherwise stated. To view this licence, visit nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3 or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: [email protected] .

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This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/election-guidance-for-civil-servants/general-election-guidance-2024-guidance-for-civil-servants-html

1. General elections have a number of implications for the work of departments and civil servants. These arise from the special character of government business during an election campaign, and from the need to maintain, and be seen to maintain, the impartiality of the Civil Service, and to avoid any criticism of an inappropriate use of official resources. This guidance takes effect from 00:01 on 25 May 2024 at which point the ‘election period’ begins. The Prime Minister will write separately to Ministers advising them of the need to adhere to this guidance and to uphold the impartiality of the Civil Service. 

2. This guidance applies to all UK civil servants, and the board members and staff of Non-Departmental Public Bodies (NDPBs) and other arms’ length bodies.  

General Principles 

3. During the election period, the Government retains its responsibility to govern, and Ministers remain in charge of their departments. Essential business (which includes routine business necessary to ensure the continued smooth functioning of government and public services) must be allowed to continue. However, it is customary for Ministers to observe discretion in initiating any new action of a continuing or long term character. Decisions on matters of policy on which a new government might be expected to want the opportunity to take a different view from the present government should be postponed until after the election, provided that such postponement would not be detrimental to the national interest or wasteful of public money.   

4. Advice on handling such issues is set out in this guidance. This guidance will not cover every eventuality, but the principles should be applied to the particular circumstances.  

5. The principles underlying the conduct of civil servants in a general election are an extension of those that apply at all times, as set out in the Civil Service Code

• The basic principle for civil servants is not to undertake any activity that could call into question their political impartiality or that could give rise to criticism that public resources are being used for party political purposes. This principle applies to all staff working in departments.  
• Departmental and NDPB activity should not be seen to compete with the election campaign for public attention. The principles and conventions set out in this guidance also apply to public bodies.  
• It is also a requirement of the Ministerial Code that Ministers must not use government resources for party political purposes and must uphold the political impartiality of the Civil Service.  

Election queries 

6. For any detailed queries on this guidance, or other questions, officials should in the first instance seek guidance from their line management chain, and, where necessary, escalate to their Permanent Secretary who may consult the Cabinet Secretary, or the Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office. 

7. The Propriety and Ethics Team handle general queries relating to conduct during the election period, provide advice on the handling of enquiries and any necessary co-ordination where enquiries raise issues that affect a number of departments (through their Permanent Secretary). 

8. In dealing with queries, the Propriety and Ethics Team will function most effectively if it is in touch with relevant developments in departments. 

Departments should therefore: 

• draw to their attention, for advice or information, any approach or exchange that raises issues that are likely to be of interest to other departments; and 
• seek advice before a Minister makes a significant Ministerial statement during the election period. 

Section A: Enquiries, Briefing, Requests for Information and attending events 

1. This note gives guidance on: 

• the handling by departments and agencies of requests for information and other enquiries during a general election campaign; 
• briefing of Ministers during the election period;  
• the handling of constituency letters received from Members of Parliament before dissolution, and of similar letters from parliamentary candidates during the campaign; and 
• the handling of FOI requests. 

2. At a general election, the government of the day is expected to defend its policies to the electorate. By convention, the governing party is entitled to check with departments that statements made on its behalf are factually correct and consistent with government policy. As at all times, however, government departments and their staff must not engage in, or appear to engage in, party politics or be used for party ends. They should provide consistent factual information on request to candidates of all parties, as well as to organisations and members of the public, and should in all instances avoid becoming involved or appearing to become involved, in a partisan way, in election issues. 

Requests for Factual Information 

3. Departments and agencies should provide any parliamentary candidate, organisation or member of the public with information in accordance with the Freedom of Information Act 2000. Local and regional offices should deal similarly with straightforward enquiries, referring doubtful cases through their line management chain and, where necessary to their Permanent Secretary for decision. 

4. Other requests for information will range from enquiries about existing government policy that are essentially factual in nature, to requests for justification and comment on existing government policy. All requests for information held by departments must be dealt with in accordance with the requirements of the Freedom of Information Act 2000. The handling of press enquiries is covered in Section I.  

5. Where the enquiry concerns the day-to-day management of a non-ministerial department or executive agency and the chief executive would normally reply, he or she should do so in the usual way, taking special care to avoid becoming involved in any matters of political controversy. 

6. Enquiries concerning policies newly announced in a party manifesto or for a comparison of the policies of different parties are for the political party concerned. Civil servants should not provide any assistance on these matters. See also paragraph 14.  

7. Officials should draft replies, whether for official or Ministerial signature, with particular care to avoid party political controversy, especially criticism of the policies of other parties. Ministers may decide to amend draft replies to include a party political context. Where this is the case, Ministers should be advised to issue the letter on party notepaper. The guiding principle is whether the use of departmental resources, including headed paper, would be a proper use of public funds for governmental as opposed to party political purposes, and could be defended as such. 

Speed of Response 

8. The circumstances of a general election demand the greatest speed in dealing with enquiries. In particular, the aim should be to answer enquiries from parliamentary candidates or from any of the political parties’ headquarters within 24 hours. All candidates should be treated equally. 

9. Where a request will take longer to deal with, the requester should be advised of this as he/she may wish to submit a refined request. 

FOI requests 

10. Requests that would normally be covered by the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) must be handled in accordance with the requirements of the Act and the deadlines set therein. Where the application of the public interest balance requires more time, that is permitted under the Act but there is no general power to defer a decision.   

11. Where a request needs to be considered under FOIA it will not normally be possible to get back to the parliamentary candidate, or others, within 24 hours and he or she should be advised of this as they may wish to submit a request more in line with paragraph 8 above. 

Role of Ministers in FOIA decisions 

12. Ministers have a number of statutory functions in relation to requests for information. They are the qualified person for the purpose of using section 36 of the FOI Act for their departments. During the general election period, Ministers will be expected to carry out these functions.  

13. Where there is any doubt, requests should be referred to the FOI Policy team in the Cabinet Office. 

Briefing and Support for Ministers 

14. Ministers continue to be in charge of departments. It is reasonable for departments to continue to provide support for any necessary governmental functions, and receive any policy advice or factual briefing necessary to resolve issues that cannot be deferred until after the election. 

15. Departments can check statements for factual accuracy and consistency with established government policy. Officials should not, however, be asked to devise new arguments or cost policies for use in the election campaign. Departments should not undertake costings or analysis of Opposition policies during the election period.  

Officials attending public or stakeholder events 

16. Officials should decline invitations to events where they may be asked to respond on questions about future government policy or on matters of public controversy. 

Constituency Correspondence 

17. During the election period, replies to constituency letters received from Members of Parliament before the dissolution, or to similar letters from parliamentary candidates, should take into account the fact that if they become public knowledge they will do so in the more politically-charged atmosphere of an election and are more likely to become the subject of political comment. Outstanding correspondence should be cleared quickly. Letters may be sent to former MPs at the House of Commons after dissolution, to be picked up or forwarded. Departments and agencies whose staff routinely deal directly with MPs’ enquiries should ensure that their regional and local offices get early guidance on dealing with questions from parliamentary candidates. Such guidance should reflect the following points: 

a. Once Parliament is dissolved, a Member of Parliament’s constitutional right to represent his or her constituents’ grievances to government disappears, and all candidates for the election are on an equal footing. This doctrine should be applied in a reasonable way. In general, replies should be sent by Ministers to constituency letters that were written by MPs before dissolution. Where there is a pressing need for Ministers to reply to letters on constituency matters written after the dissolution by former Members, this should be handled in a way that avoids any preferential treatment or the appearance of preferential treatment between letters from the governing party and those from other candidates. It will normally be appropriate to send a Private Secretary reply to letters on constituency matters from prospective parliamentary candidates who were not Members before the dissolution. 

b. The main consideration must be to ensure that the citizen’s interests are not prejudiced. But it is possible that a personal case may become politically controversial during the election period. Departments should therefore make particular efforts to ensure, so far as possible, that letters are factual, straightforward and give no room for misrepresentation. 

c. Replies to constituency correspondence to be sent after polling day should, where there has been a change of MP, normally be sent direct to the constituent concerned. It should be left to the constituent to decide whether or not to copy the letter to any new MP. Where there is no change in MP, correspondence should be returned to the MP in the normal way.

Section B: Special Advisers 

1. Special Advisers must agree with the Cabinet Office the termination of their contracts  on or before 30 May (except for a small number of Special Advisers who may remain in post, where the express agreement of their appointing Minister and the Prime Minister to continue in post has been given).     

2. An exception to this is where a Special Adviser has been publicly identified as a candidate or prospective candidate for election to the UK Parliament, in which case they must instead resign at the start of the short campaign period ahead of the election. 

3. Special Advisers who leave government for any reason will no longer have preferential access to papers and officials. Any request for advice from a former Special Adviser will be treated in the same way as requests from other members of the public.  

4. On leaving government, Special Advisers should return all departmental property e.g. mobile phones, remote access and other IT equipment. Special Advisers may leave a voicemail message or out of office reply on departmental IT with forwarding contact details.  

5. Special Advisers receive severance pay when their appointment is terminated, but not where they resign. Severance pay for Special Advisers is taxable as normal income and will be paid as a lump sum. The amount an individual is entitled to will be determined by their length of service as set out in the Model Contract for Special Advisers. Special Advisers are required to agree that if they are reappointed, they will repay any amount above that which they would have been paid in salary had they remained in post. Any excess severance will be reclaimed automatically through payroll on reappointment.  

6. If the Prime Minister agrees exceptionally that a Special Adviser should remain in post during the election period, their appointment will be automatically terminated the day after polling day. In those cases, Special Advisers may continue to give advice on government business to their Ministers as before. They must continue to adhere to the requirements of the Code of Conduct for Special Advisers and may not take any public part in the campaign. Section A is also relevant in relation to the commissioning of briefing. 

7. Different arrangements can be made for Special Advisers on, or about to begin, maternity leave when a UK general election is called. These arrangements are set out in the Maternity Policy for Special Advisers, and Special Adviser HR are best placed to advise on specific circumstances.

8. If there is no change of government following the election, a Special Adviser may be reappointed. The Prime Minister’s approval will be required before any commitments are made, and a new contract issued, including for any advisers who have stayed in post.

Section C: Contacts with the Opposition Party 

1. The Prime Minister has authorised pre-election contact between the main opposition parties and Permanent Secretaries from 11 January 2024. These contacts are strictly confidential and are designed to allow Opposition spokespeople to inform themselves of factual questions of departmental organisation and to inform civil servants of any organisational or policy changes likely in the event of a change of government.  

2. Separate guidance on handling such contacts is set out in the Cabinet Manual.

Section D: Contact with Select Committees 

1. House of Commons Select Committees set up by Standing Order continue in existence, technically, until that Standing Order is amended or rescinded. In practice, when Parliament is dissolved pending a general election, membership of committees lapses and work on their inquiries ceases.  

2. House of Lords Select Committees are not set up by Standing Orders and technically cease to exist at the end of each session. 

3. The point of contact for departments continues to be the Committee Clerk who remains in post to process the basic administrative work of the committee (and prepare for the re-establishment of the Committee in the next Parliament).  

4. Departments should continue to work, on a contingency basis, on any outstanding evidence requested by the outgoing committee and on any outstanding government responses to committee reports. It will be for any newly-appointed Ministers to approve the content of any response. It will be for the newly-appointed committee to decide whether to continue with its predecessor committee’s inquiries and for the incoming administration to review the terms of draft responses before submitting to the newly appointed committee. 

5. It is for the newly-appointed committee to decide whether to publish government responses to its predecessor reports. There may be some delay before the committee is reconstituted, and an incoming government may well wish to publish such responses itself by means of a Command Paper. In this event, the department should consult the Clerk of the Committee before publication of the report response.

Section E: Political Activities of Civil Servants 

1. Permanent Secretaries will wish to remind staff of the general rules governing national political activities. These are set out in the Civil Service Management Code and departmental staff handbooks. 

2. For this purpose, the Civil Service is divided into three groups: 

a. the “politically free” – industrial and non-office grades; 

b. the “politically restricted” – members of the Senior Civil Service, civil servants in Grades 6 and 7 (or equivalent) and members of the Fast Stream Development Programme; and

c. civil servants outside the “politically free” and “politically restricted” groups  

3. Civil servants on secondment to outside organisations (or who are on any form of paid or unpaid leave) remain civil servants and the rules relating to political activity continue to apply to them. Departments should seek to contact individuals on secondment outside the civil service to remind them of this. Individuals seconded into the Civil Service are also covered by these rules for the duration of their appointment. 

Civil Servants Standing for Parliament  

4. All civil servants are disqualified from election to Parliament (House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975) and must resign from the Civil Service before standing for election. Individuals must resign from the Civil Service on their formal adoption as a prospective parliamentary candidate, and must complete their last day of service before their adoption papers are completed. If the adoption process does not reasonably allow for the individual to give full notice, departments and agencies may at their discretion pay an amount equivalent to the period of notice that would normally be given. 

Other Political Activity 

5. “Politically restricted” civil servants are prohibited from any participation in national political activities.  

6. All other civil servants may engage in national political activities with the permission of the department, which may be subject to certain conditions.  

7. Where, on a case by case basis, permission is given by departments, civil servants must still act in accordance with the requirements of the Civil Service Code, including ensuring that they meet the Code’s values and standards of behaviour about impartiality and political impartiality. Notwithstanding any permission to engage in national political activities, they must ensure that their actions (and the perception of those actions) are compatible with the requirements to: 

• serve the government, whatever its political persuasion, to the best of their ability in a way which maintains political impartiality and is in line with the requirements of the Code, no matter what their own political beliefs are; and 
• act in a way which deserves and retains the confidence of ministers, while at the same time ensuring that they will be able to establish the same relationship with those whom they may be required to serve in some future government. 

Reinstatement 

8. Departments and agencies must reinstate former civil servants who have resigned from “politically free” posts to stand for election and whose candidature has proved unsuccessful, provided they apply within a week of declaration day.  

9. Departments and agencies have discretion to reinstate all other former civil servants who have resigned to stand for election and whose candidature has proved unsuccessful. Former civil servants in this category seeking reinstatement should apply within a week of declaration day if they are not elected. Departments are encouraged to consider all applications sympathetically and on their merits. For some individuals, it may not be possible to post them back to their former area of employment because, for instance, of the sensitivity of their work and/or because their previous job is no longer vacant. In these cases, every effort should be made to post these staff to other areas rather than reject their applications.

Section F: Cabinet and Official Documents 

1. In order to enable Ministers to fulfil their continuing responsibilities as members of the Government during the election period, departments should retain the Cabinet documents issued to them. Cabinet documents refers to all papers, minutes and supplementary materials relating to Cabinet and its committees. This is applicable to meetings of and correspondence to Cabinet and its committees. 

2. If there is no change of government after the election, Ministers who leave office or who move to another Ministerial position must surrender any Cabinet or Cabinet committee papers or minutes (including electronic copies) and they should be retained in the department in line with guidance issued by the Cabinet Office.  Ministers who leave office or move to another Ministerial position should also not remove or destroy papers that are the responsibility of their former department: that is, those papers that are not personal, party or constituency papers. 

3. If a new government is formed, all Cabinet and Cabinet committee documents issued to Ministers should be destroyed. Clearly no instructions can be given to this effect until the result of the election is known, but Permanent Secretaries may wish to alert the relevant Private Secretaries.  

4. The conventions regarding the access by Ministers and Special Advisers to papers of a previous Administration are explained in more detail in the Cabinet Manual. Further guidance to departments will be issued by the Cabinet Office once the outcome of the election is known.  

5. More detailed guidance on managing records in the event of a change of administration will be held by your Departmental Records Officer. The Head of Public Records and Archives in the Cabinet Office can also provide further advice and written guidance can be found here: 

Guidance management of private office information and records

Section G: Government Decisions 

1. During an election campaign the Government retains its responsibility to govern and Ministers remain in charge of their departments. Essential business (including routine business necessary to ensure the continued smooth functioning of government and public services) must be carried on. Cabinet committees are not expected to meet during the election period, nor are they expected to consider issues by correspondence. However there may be exceptional circumstances under which a collective decision of Ministers is required. If something requires collective agreement and cannot wait until after the General Election, the Cabinet Secretary should be consulted.  

2. However, it is customary for Ministers to observe discretion in initiating any action of a continuing or long term character. Decisions on matters of policy, and other issues such as large and/or contentious commercial contracts, on which a new government might be expected to want the opportunity to take a different view from the present government, should be postponed until after the election, provided that such postponement would not be detrimental to the national interest or wasteful of public money. 

Statutory Instruments 

3. The principles outlined above apply to making statutory instruments. 

Departmental lawyers can advise in more detail, in conjunction with the Statutory Instrument Hub.  

4. The general principle that Ministers should observe discretion in initiating any new action of a continuing or long-term character applies to the making of commencement orders, which during the election period should be exceptional.  As is usual practice, statutory instruments are required to go through the Parliamentary Business and Legislation Committee process before they can be laid.

Section H: Public and Senior Civil Service Appointments

1. All appointments requiring approval by the Prime Minister, and other Civil Service and public appointments likely to prove sensitive (including those where Ministers have delegated decisions to officials or other authorities) should be frozen until after the election, except in exceptional circumstances (further detail below). This includes appointments where a candidate has already accepted a written offer (and the appointment has been announced before the election period), but where the individual is not due to take up post until after the election. The individual concerned should be told that the appointment will be subject to confirmation by the new Administration after the election. 

2. It is recognised that this may result in the cancellation (or delay) of an appointment by the new Administration, and that the relevant department could be vulnerable to legal action by a disappointed candidate. To reduce the risk of this, departments might wish to: 

• recommend to their Secretary of State the advisability of bringing forward or delaying key stages in the process, where an appointment would otherwise likely take effect just before or after an election; 
• issue a conditional offer letter, making it clear that the formal offer of the appointment will need to be confirmed by a new Administration. 

3. In cases where an appointment is due to end between dissolution and election day, and no announcement has been made concerning the new appointment, it will normally be possible for the post to be left vacant or the current term extended until incoming Ministers have been able to take a decision either about reappointment of the existing appointee or the appointment of a new person. This situation is also likely to apply to any appointments made by Letters Patent, or otherwise requiring royal approval, since it would not be appropriate to invite His Majesty to make a conditional appointment. 

4. In exceptional cases where it is not possible to apply these temporary arrangements and there is an essential need to make an appointment during the election period, departments may wish to advise their Ministers about consulting the Opposition before a final decision is taken. Departments should consult the Public Appointments Policy Team in the Cabinet Office. 

5. In the case of public and Senior Civil Service appointments, departments should delay the launch of any open competition during an election period, to give any incoming Administration the option of deciding whether to follow the existing approach.  

6. In those cases where an appointment is required to be made, it is acceptable, in the case of sensitive Senior Civil Service positions, to allow temporary promotion.  

Section I: Communication Activities during a General Election

1. The general principle governing communication activities during a general election is to do everything possible to avoid competition with parliamentary candidates for the attention of the public, and not to undertake any activity that could call into question civil servants’ political impartiality or that could give rise to criticism that public resources are being used for party political purposes. Special care must be taken during the course of an election since material produced with complete impartiality, which would be accepted as objective in ordinary times, may generate criticism during an election period when feelings are running high. All communication activity should be conducted in line with Government Communication Service (GCS) guidance on propriety and propriety in digital and social media .  

2. Departmental communications staff may properly continue to discharge their normal function during the election period, to the extent of providing factual explanation of current government policy, statements and decisions. They must be particularly careful not to become involved in a partisan way in election issues.  

3. During the election period, access to departmental briefing systems will be restricted to permanent civil servants who will produce briefing, and answer requests for information, in line with the principles set out in Section A of the election guidance. Any updating of lines to take should be confined to matters of fact and explanations of existing government policy in order to avoid criticism of serving, or appearing to serve, a party political purpose.  

News Media  

4. In response to questions departments should, where possible, provide factual information by reference to published material, including that on websites. Specific requests for unpublished material should be handled in accordance with the requirements of the Freedom of Information Act. 

5. Routine factual press notices may continue to be issued – for example statistics that are issued on a regular basis or reports of publicly-owned bodies, independent committees etc., which a department is required to publish. 

6. There would normally be no objection to issuing routine factual publications, for example health and safety advice, but these should be decided on a case by case basis, in consultation with the Director or Head of Communications, who should take account of the subject matter and the intended audience. A similar approach should apply to blogs and social media. 

7. Press releases and other material normally sent to Members of Parliament should cease at the point at which this guidance comes into effect. 

8. Statements that refer to the future intentions of the Government should not be handled by a department and should be treated as party political statements. Where a Minister considers it necessary to hold a governmental press conference to make clear the Government’s existing policies on a particular subject prior to the election, then his or her department should provide facilities and give guidance. Ultimately, each case must be judged on its merits, including consideration of whether an announcement needs to be made, in consultation with the Director or Head of Communications.  

9. The Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office must be consulted before a Minister makes an official Ministerial statement during the election period. 

10. Statements or comments referring to the policies, commitments or perceived intentions of Opposition parties should not be handled by departments. 

Press Articles, Interviews, and Broadcasts and Webcasts by Ministers  

11. During the election period, arrangements for newspaper articles, interviews and broadcasts by Ministers, including online, will normally be made on the political network. Care should be taken by communications staff in arranging any press interviews for Ministers during this period because of the possibility that such interviews would have a strong political content. They should not arrange broadcasts through official channels unless they are satisfied there is a need to do so and that the Minister is speaking in a government, not party, capacity. 

Paid Media 

12. Advertising, including partnership and influencer marketing. New campaigns will in general be postponed and live campaigns will be paused (across all advertising and marketing channels). A very small number of campaigns (for example, relating to essential recruitment, or public health, such as blood and organ donation or health and safety) may be approved by the Permanent Secretary, in consultation with GCS and the Propriety and Ethics Team.

a. International activity. Where marketing is delivered outside the UK and targeting non-UK citizens, the campaign can continue during the election period, subject to Permanent Secretary approval and as long as consideration has been given to the potential for the campaign to garner interest within the UK and to reach UK diaspora. If continuing the campaign is likely to generate domestic interest, it should be paused.

b. Official radio ‘fillers’ will be reviewed and withdrawn unless essential.

13. Films, videos and photographs from departmental libraries or sources should not be made available for use by political parties.  

14. Printed material should not normally be given any fresh distribution in the United Kingdom during the election period, in order to avoid any competition with the flow of election material. The effect on departments that distribute posters and leaflets to the public is as follows: 

a. Posters. The normal display of existing posters on official premises may continue but efforts should not be made to seek display elsewhere. Specific requests by employers, trade unions etc for particular posters may, however, be met in the ordinary way. 

b. Leaflets. Small numbers of copies of leaflets may be issued on request to members of the public and to parliamentary candidates, in consultation with the Director or Head of Communications, who should take account of the subject matter and the intended audience. Bulk supplies should not be issued to any individuals or organisations without appropriate approval. 

c. Export promotion stories and case studies for overseas use may continue to be sought  in the UK but it must be made clear on each occasion that this information is needed for use abroad, and permission must be sought from the Permanent Secretary before proceeding. 

d. The use of public buildings for communication purposes is covered in Section L. 

15. Exhibitions. Official exhibitions on a contentious policy or proposal should not be kept open or opened during the election period. Official exhibitions that form part of a privately sponsored exhibition do not have to be withdrawn unless they are contentious, in which case they should be withdrawn. 

Social Media and Digital Channels 

16. Official websites and social media channels will be scrutinised closely by news media and political parties during the election period. All content must be managed in accordance with GCS propriety guidance.

Publishing content online  

17. Content Design: planning, writing and managing content guidance   should be consulted when publishing any online content.

18. Material that has already been published in accordance with the rules on propriety and that is part of the public domain record can stand. It may also be updated for factual accuracy, for example a change of address. However, while it can be referred to in handling media enquiries and signposting in response to enquiries from the public, nothing should be done to draw further attention to it. 

19. Updating the public with essential factual information may continue (e.g. transport delays) but social media and blogs that comment on government policies and proposals should not be updated for the duration of the election period.  

20. Ministers’ biographies and details of their responsibilities can remain on sites, no additions should be made. Social media profiles should not be updated during this period. 

21. Site maintenance and planned functional and technical development for existing sites can continue, but this should not involve new campaigns or extending existing campaigns.  

22. News sections of websites and blogs must comply with the advice on press releases. News tickers and other mechanisms should be discontinued for the election period. 

23. In the event of an emergency, digital channels can be used as part of Crisis Communication  activity in the normal way. 

Further Guidance 

24. In any case of doubt about the application of this guidance in a particular case, communications staff should consult their Director or Head of Communications in the first instance, then, if necessary, the Chief Executive, Government Communication Service, Chief Operating Officer, Government Communication Service, or the departmental Permanent Secretary who will liaise with the Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office.

Section J: Guidance on Consultations during an election period 

1. In general, new public consultations should not be launched during the election period. If there are exceptional circumstances where launching a consultation is considered essential (for example, safeguarding public health), permission should be sought from the Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office. 

2. If a consultation is on-going at the time this guidance comes into effect, it should continue as normal. However, departments should not take any steps during an election period that will compete with parliamentary candidates for the public’s attention. This effectively means a ban on publicity for those consultations that are still in process. 

3. As these restrictions may be detrimental to a consultation, departments are advised to decide on steps to make up for that deficiency while strictly observing the guidance. That can be done, for example, by: 

a. prolonging the consultation period; and 

b. putting out extra publicity for the consultation after the election in order to revive interest (following consultation with any new Minister). 

4. Some consultations, for instance those aimed solely at professional groups, and that carry no publicity, will not have the impact of those where a very public and wide-ranging consultation is required. Departments need, therefore, to take into account the circumstances of each consultation. Some may need no remedial action – but this is a practical rather than propriety question so long as departments observe the broader guidance here. 

5. During the election period, departments may continue to receive and analyse responses with a view to putting proposals to the incoming government but they should not make any statement or generate publicity during this period.   

Section K: Statistical Activities during a General Election 

1. This note gives guidance on the conduct of statistical activities across government during a general election period.  [footnote 1]

2. The same principles apply to social research and other government analytical services.  

3. Under the terms of the Statistics and Registration Service Act 2007, the UK Statistics Authority, headed by the National Statistician, is responsible for promoting and safeguarding the integrity of official statistics. It should be consulted in any cases of doubt about the application of this guidance.  

Key Principles 

4. Statistical activities should continue to be conducted in accordance with the Code of Practice for Official Statistics and the UK Government’s Prerelease Access to Official Statistics Order 2008, taking great care, in each case, to avoid competition with parliamentary candidates for the attention of the public. 

Statistical publications, releases, etc. 

5. The greatest care must continue to be taken to ensure that information is presented impartially and objectively. 

6. Regular pre-announced statistical releases (e.g. press notices, bulletins, publications or electronic releases) will continue to be issued and published. Any other ad hoc statistical releases should be released only in exceptional circumstances and with the approval of the National Statistician, consulting with the Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office where appropriate. Where a pre-announcement has specified that the information would be released during a specified period (e.g. a week, or longer time period), but did not specify a precise day, releases should not be published within the election period. The same applies to social research publications

Requests for information 

7. Any requests for unpublished statistics, including from election candidates, should be handled in an even-handed manner, in accordance with the Freedom of Information Act. Guidance on handling FOI requests can be found in Section A.  

Commentary and Briefing 

8. Special care must be taken in producing commentary for inclusion in announcements of statistical publications issued during the election period. Commentary that would be accepted as impartial and objective analysis or interpretation at ordinary times, may attract criticism during an election. Commentary by civil servants should be restricted to the most basic factual clarification during this period. Ultimately the content of the announcement is left to the discretion of the departmental Head of Profession, seeking advice from the National Statistician as appropriate. 

9. Pre-election arrangements for statistics, whereby pre-release access for briefing purposes is given to Ministers or chief executives (and their appropriate briefing officials) who have policy responsibility for a subject area covered by a particular release, should continue, in accordance with the principles embodied in the UK Government’s Pre-release Access to Official Statistics Order 2008.  

10. In general, during this period, civil servants involved in the production of official statistics will not provide face to face briefing to Ministers. Only if there is a vital operational need for information, (e.g. an out of the ordinary occurrence of market-sensitive results with significant implications for the economy, or some new management figures with major implications for the running of public services), should such briefing be provided. Any such briefing should be approved by the National Statistician.  

11. Requests for advice on the interpretation or analysis of statistics should be handled with care, and in accordance with the guidance in paragraphs 6 and 7.  

12. Requests for factual guidance on methodology should continue to be met. 

13. Requests for small numbers of copies of leaflets, background papers or free publications that were available before the election period may continue to be met but no bulk issues to individuals or organisations should be made without appropriate approval. Regular mailings of statistical bulletins to customers on existing mailing lists may continue. 

Censuses, Surveys and other forms of quantitative or qualitative research enquiry  

14. Regular, continuous and on-going censuses and surveys of individuals, households, businesses or other organisations may continue. Ad hoc surveys and other forms of research that are directly related to and in support of a continuing statistical series may also continue. Ad hoc surveys and other forms of research that may give rise to controversy or be related to an election issue should be postponed or abandoned. 

Consultations 

15. Statistical consultations that are on-going at the point at which Parliament dissolves should continue as normal, but any publicity for such consultations should cease. New public consultations, even if preannounced, should not be launched but should be delayed until after the result of the election is officially declared.  

Further Advice 

16. If officials working on statistics in any area across government are unsure about any matters relating to their work during the election period, they should seek the advice of their Head of Profession in the first instance. Heads of Profession should consult the National Statistician in any cases of doubt. Queries relating to social research, or other analytical services should similarly be referred to the relevant Head of Profession or departmental lead and Permanent Secretary’s office in the first instance. Further advice can be sought from the Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office.

Section L: Use of Government Property 

1. Neither Ministers, nor any other parliamentary candidates, should involve government establishments in the general election campaign by visiting them for electioneering purposes. 

2. In the case of NHS property, decisions are for the relevant NHS Trust but should visits be permitted to, for example, hospitals, the Department of Health and Social Care advise that there should be no disruption to services and the same facilities should be offered to other candidates. In any case, it is advised that election meetings should not be permitted on NHS premises. NHS England publishes its own information to NHS organisations about the pre-election period.

3. Decisions on the use of other public sector and related property must be taken by those legally responsible for the premises concerned – for example, for schools, the Governors or the Local Education Authority or Trust Board, and so on. If those concerned consult departments, they should be told that the decision is left to them but that they will be expected to treat the candidates of all parties in an even-handed way, and that there should be no disruption to services. The Department for Education will provide advice to schools on the use of school premises and resources.  

4. It is important that those legally responsible for spending public funds or the use of public property ensure that there is no misuse, or the perception of misuse, for party political purposes. Decision-makers must respect the Seven Principles of Public Life when considering the use of public funds or property during the election period. The principles include an expectation that public office holders take decisions impartially, fairly and on merit and maintain their accountability to the public for their decisions and actions.

Section M: International Business 

1. This guidance specifically addresses the principles that will apply to international business.  

2. International business will continue as normal during the period of the general election.  

International meetings 

3. Decisions on Ministerial attendance and representation at international meetings will continue to be taken on a case by case basis by the lead UK Minister. For example, Ministers will be entitled to attend international summits (such as meetings of the G20).  

4. When Ministers speak at international  meetings, they are fully entitled to pursue existing UK Government policies. All Ministers, whether from the UK Government or the Devolved Administrations, should avoid exploiting international engagements for electoral purposes. Ministers should observe discretion on new initiatives and before stating new positions or making new commitments (see Section G for further advice on Government decision-making).

5. Where a Minister is unable to attend an international meeting that has been assessed as of significant interest to the UK, the UK may be represented by a senior official. In this case, where an item is likely to be pressed to a decision (a legislative decision, or some other form of commitment, e.g. a resolution, conclusions), officials should engage in negotiations and vote in line with the cleared UK position and in line with a detailed brief cleared by the lead UK Minister. Officials should engage actively where there will be a general discussion or orientation debate, but should seek to avoid taking high profile decisions on issues of domestic political sensitivity. If decisions fall to be taken at an international summit that risk being controversial between the UK political parties, departments should consult their Permanent Secretary about the line to follow who may in turn wish to consult the Cabinet Secretary. 

Changes to International Negotiating Positions

6. There may be an unavoidable need for changes to a cleared UK position that require the collective agreement of Ministers. This may arise, for example, through the need for officials to have sufficiently clear negotiating instructions or as a result of the agreed UK position coming under pressure in the closing stages of negotiation. If collective agreement is required, the Cabinet Secretary should be consulted (see Section G). The Cabinet Secretariat can advise departments where they are unsure whether an issue requires further collective agreement. 

7. Departments should note that the reduced availability of Ministers during the election period means that it will be necessary to allow as much time as possible for Ministers to consider an issue. 

Relations with the Press 

8. Departmental Communication staff may properly continue to discharge, during the election period, their normal function only to the extent of providing factual explanation of current government policy, statements and decisions. They must be particularly careful not to become involved in a partisan way in election issues. 

9. Ministers attending international meetings will no doubt wish to brief the press afterwards in the normal manner. But where officials attend meetings in place of Ministers, they should be particularly circumspect in responding to the press on any decision or discussion in the meeting that could be regarded as touching on matters of domestic political sensitivity. If departments wish to issue press notices following international meetings on the discussions or decisions that took place, they should be essentially factual. Any comment, especially on items of domestic sensitivity, should be made by Ministers. In doing so, consideration will need to be given as to whether such comment should be handled by the department or the party. This must be agreed in advance with the Permanent Secretary.  

International Appointments 

10. The UK should not normally make nominations or put forward candidates for senior international appointments until after the election. It remains possible to make nominations or put forward candidates for other positions. Departments should consult their Permanent Secretary and the Propriety and Ethics Team in Cabinet Office on appointments that risk being controversial between the UK political parties.

Section N: The Devolved Administrations

1. The general election does not affect the devolved administrations in the same way. The devolved legislatures are elected separately to the House of Commons. Devolved Ministers in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland will continue to carry out their devolved functions in those countries as usual.

2. Under the Civil Service Code, which also applies to all civil servants, civil servants in the devolved administrations serve Ministers elected through elections in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and do not report to the UK Government. Accordingly, this guidance does not apply to them. They will continue to support their Ministers in their work. 

3. However, the devolved administrations acknowledge that their activities could have a bearing on the general election campaign. While the devolved administrations will continue largely as normal, they are aware of the need to avoid any action that is, or could be construed as being, party political or likely to have a direct bearing on the general election. Staff in the devolved administrations will continue to refer requests for information about reserved issues from MPs, parliamentary candidates and political parties to the relevant UK department. Requests for information about devolved issues will be handled in accordance with relevant FOI legislation, taking account of the need for prompt responses in the context of an election period. 

4. Officials in the devolved administrations are subject to the rules in Section E as regards their personal political activities, in the same way as UK Government officials. 

5. Discussions with the devolved administrations during the election period should be conducted in this context. For more general details on how best to work with the devolved administrations see the Cabinet Office guidance: Devolution guidance for civil servants

Section O: Public Bodies 

1. The general principles and conventions set out in this guidance apply to the board members and staff of all NDPBs and similar public bodies. Some NDPBs and ALBs employ civil servants.  

2. NDPBs and other public sector bodies must be, and be seen to be, politically impartial. They should avoid becoming involved in party political controversy. Decisions on individual matters are for the bodies concerned in consultation with their sponsor department who will wish to consider whether proposed activities could reflect adversely on the work or reputation of the NDPB or public body in question.

This includes departments and their agencies and other relevant public bodies including all public bodies deemed to be producers of official statistics by dint of an Order in Parliament.  ↩

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