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The challenges and strategies of food security under global change.

1. The Challenges of Food Security

2. wars and conflicts as enhancers of food insecurity risks, 3. prospects and future challenges, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Guiné, R.P.F. The Challenges and Strategies of Food Security under Global Change. Foods 2024 , 13 , 2083. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13132083

Guiné RPF. The Challenges and Strategies of Food Security under Global Change. Foods . 2024; 13(13):2083. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13132083

Guiné, Raquel P. F. 2024. "The Challenges and Strategies of Food Security under Global Change" Foods 13, no. 13: 2083. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13132083

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Food Security

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Sample Theses by AUB Food Security Students

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The Syrian Refugees' Impact on Lebanon's Food Security / Noura Sakr  (Politecnico Milano)

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• Agrarian transition and food security in the Village of Nahle, Northern Bekaa / Fatima Yahfoufi Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2023.
• Exploring the potential role of urban agriculture as a community engagement strategy in universities during a food security crisis: the American university of Beirut as a case study / by Melody Tamer Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2022.
• The contribution of urban agriculture to food security in post-conflict Syria / by Ali Hashem Alhasan. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2021.
• Agrarian transition and food security in the village of Nabha, Central Bekaa / by Nour El Houda Amhez. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2019. ST:6925.
• Agrarian transition and food security in the village of Khreibet El Jundi, Akkar, Lebanon / by Nour El-Jundi. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2019. ST:6976.
• Assessing ecologically sound practices influencing climate change adaptation strategies and food security : a case of smallholder farmers in central Bekaa, Lebanon / by Aliaa Ahmad Al Dirani. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2019. ST:6975.
• The effectiveness of food aid on food availability and food stability among small scale pastoralist communities in Tana River County, Kenya / by Kelvin Kiragu Kimani. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program , 2019. ST:7037.
• The role of household-level dairy preservation ("mouneh" production) in the food, protein, and nutrition security, and in the food sovereignty of Jordanian households / by Hannah Nicholson. Thesis. M.S. American University of Beirut. Food Security Program, 2019. ST:7038.
• واقع الأمن الغذائي في الأردن = Food Security Status in Jordan by جوابرة ، رنيم زياد أحمد Publication Date: 2015
• الأبعاد السياسية و الاقتصادية للأمن المائي العربي و أثره على الأمن الغذائي ( 2000 - 2013 م ) = Political and Economic Dimensions of the Arab Water Security and its Impact on Food Security 2000 - 2013 by الدغمي ، صايل رميح طنا Publication Date: 2014
• التبعية الغذائية العربية و الأمن القومي العربي : الأسباب و الآثار = Food Dependency and Arab National Security : Causes and Effects by الشوك ، رباب علي جميل أمين Publication Date: 2011

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Food security systems in rural communities: a qualitative study.

• Public Administration Postgraduate Program, Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Administrasi Puangrimaggalatung, Makassar, Indonesia

Indonesia is rich in natural resources, but the problem of food insecurity is still a significant concern. However, few studies still examine the relationship of socio dynamics in contributing to local ecosystems to create food security. In this study, we discuss how social dynamics contribute to normative structures, community habits, and livelihoods to meet the living needs of rural communities in creating household food security and how they try to deal with worsening food insecurity through the local wisdom of rural communities. The research methodology is participatory qualitative, while data collection is through a Discussion Group Forum (FGD) and in-depth interviews with rural communities. Fifteen villages contributed to this study, interviewing 14 villagers individually, and the rest were grouped in FGDs based on livelihood categories and equal access to forest and coastal areas. Interview notes and transcription of citations were analyzed using the Thematic Framework Analysis (TFA). The study results illustrate that the village food system is vulnerable to human and natural capital. An adaptation of rural communities will experience food security difficulties when ecosystems do not provide sufficient protection due to a fluctuating climate, crop failure, and loss of household labor due to travel and health emergencies. In addition, food security is created through the dynamics of a well-maintained environment and rural local wisdom, which facilitates broad access to food provided by nature, agricultural land, marine resources, environmental knowledge, community relations, and labor. Our findings highlight the need for interventions that promote environmental conservation goals and introduce social structures that support food security.

Introduction

Food security remains a global goal, defined as achieving sufficient access to nutritious food for healthy growth ( Banik, 2019 ). Data shows that 149 million children suffer from food insecurity worldwide ( Khadija et al., 2022 ), one of the variables is the lack of adequate nutritional intake for child growth and development; until now, it is still a world problem ( Bailey et al., 2015 ). The implementation of sustainable food security policies in Indonesia has ordered every province to address the issue of malnutrition by protecting ecosystems ( Damanik, 2018 ). There is a consensus that further research is needed to understand better the role of natural ecosystems in developing food security systems for vulnerable communities, such as the poor, pregnant women, and children ( Powell et al., 2015 ; Cruz-Garcia et al., 2016 ).

The results of previous studies have shown that natural ecosystem products support the regular functioning of food systems by providing a wide variety of food and nutritional intakes, as well as providing livelihoods for rural communities ( Powell et al., 2015 ). In addition, research conducted in tropical forests shows that rural communities are more likely to consume a varied diet than those who mostly rely on buying food at the market ( van Vliet et al., 2015 ). Significant resources, such as vegetables and fruits, can be obtained freely from nature; abundant natural resources enable people to generate income, such as ecotourism, fishing for sale, and farming ( Cruz-Garcia et al., 2016 ).

The specific role of natural ecosystems in creating food security is still challenging. Food security is a condition that improves, such as food availability, or a person can eat their favorite food, thus avoiding hunger that can occur over a certain period ( FAO, 2017 ). In the context of the contribution of nature as part of daily food security, it still seems to be an exciting thing to study, given the realities that exist in society, for example harvesting wild vegetables is not only a daily activity but can also reflect the level of food availability that is deteriorating depending on the environment and social acceptance of harvested items ( Powell et al., 2015 ; Paumgarten et al., 2018 ). Meanwhile, in the context of adaptation to climate change, the current use of natural ecosystems as a mechanism for meeting the needs of life is expected to safeguard natural resources for future life because natural threats often occur, and the community gradually adopts steps to manage risks ( Eriksen et al., 2005 ; Berman et al., 2012 ). Therefore, testing the contribution of natural resources in meeting food security requires a comprehensive study of resources and practices carried out by communities through several food security scenarios ( Pramova et al., 2012 ; Powell et al., 2015 ).

In addition, it is also necessary to examine the contribution of food from natural resources to assess steps in creating food security because dependence on nature and livelihood practices can sometimes be a “poverty trap” ( Paumgarten et al., 2018 ) which leads to increased vulnerability to natural disasters, such as droughts and floods. Such challenges usually force someone to sell their assets to make ends meet and increase the extraction of natural resources. In addition to reducing the availability of natural resources, this last problem will also impact the community regarding natural hazards due to ecosystem degradation ( Ferse et al., 2014 ). In addition, despite having rich natural ecosystems and being easy to access, problems for vulnerable communities such as the poor are usually difficult to have an asset base to utilize sufficient varieties of natural resources ( Paumgarten et al., 2018 ) or to invest in high-return ventures ( Brouwer et al., 2007 ; Orsini et al., 2013 ).

This study further discusses the function of natural ecosystems in helping rural communities create food security by looking at the social dynamics that affect rural areas in Bone Regency, Indonesia. This study examines two problems; first, the extent to which adaptation to natural ecosystems supports the food security system in the village; secondly, the factors that influence how communities can benefit from natural ecosystems when food insecurity occurs in the village.

The scope of this research is to explain the social dynamics that make a beneficial contribution to the ecosystem toward the creation of food security in the village ( Grote, 2014 ) because the community, on average, uses natural products (more than 85%), the population density is low, good access to nature, and lack of extractive activities directed at markets ( Ramirez-Gomez et al., 2015 ). These variables are combined to describe an “ideal” case scenario ( Yin, 2009 ), which serves to ascertain the role of natural resources in creating food security among communities whose food systems and livelihoods are well adapted to their environment ( Paumgarten et al., 2018 ).

This research is related to the social dynamics in which people's livelihoods are related to subsistence in highland and lowland areas that are rich in biodiversity, especially in Bone Regency. This research believes collaboration between humans and nature to create food security is very much needed. While recent efforts have been made to produce policies related to environmental changes caused by global warming ( Schuldt and Roh, 2014 ), topics such as these often ignore problems of rural communities that have not been addressed directly ( Jang and Hart, 2015 ). Food security is a constitutive part of the reality of society; for example, a health and demographic survey found that Indonesia was ranked fifth in the prevalence of stunting in the world, and the results of research from Basic Health Research in 2013 showed the prevalence of stunting was 37.2%, including health problems who are heavy because they are in the range of 30–39% ( Hadi et al., 2019 ). In addition, data from the Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysics Agency shows that floods and droughts occur periodically in Indonesia ( Pratiwi et al., 2016 ), and climatic conditions indicate seasonal weather patterns change in the region. In addition, conservation models highlight that areas rich in biodiversity may face extinction threats from other sites, as intensive deforestation can further affect sensitive plant and animal species ( Joetzjer et al., 2013 ).

We assess food security through group discussions about the supports that affect food access and the adaptation mechanisms they adopt. We apply the concept of “strategy,” which is the response adopted to deal with the constraints experienced in the social structure of society, such as knowledge and management systems ( Bacon et al., 2012 ). This structure includes cultured adaptation to the environment that helps to cope with disasters, known as “adaptive strategies” ( Schlueter et al., 2012 ). The literature on coping behavior is considered an appropriate indicator of food security. A comparison of previous studies found that coping strategies reflect worsening conditions of food insecurity as individuals seek to balance their food needs with increased income ( Harvey et al., 2014 ). Families usually take advantage of available resources (such as wild food) when food insecurity is mild. However, as food scarcity worsens, unsustainable ways to access food become more common, such as selling their assets ( Kimani-Murage et al., 2014 ). Survival strategies such as fasting foreshadow problems to overcome. Transitions in the face of short-term food insecurity, for example, the livelihood systems of landless freelancers, are likely to experience hunger quickly when they are out of work for several days. In turn, the absence of a food insecurity type coping strategy despite a disaster indicates that the food security system can recover quickly to avoid the collapse of local livelihoods.

This research frames studies related to sustainable livelihoods ( Serrat, 2017 ), using a qualitative lens to explain the socio-economic dynamics that affect the food security of rural communities, which are described in economic activities, lifestyles, and types of identities ( Rigg, 2007 ). This approach contributes to a shift in the understanding of livelihoods from accumulating money and tangible goods to immaterial, like social connections, forms of association, and traditional knowledge ( Reyes-Garcia et al., 2008 ). This study pays special attention to rural communities because they are subject to several social arrangements, such as village norms that regulate people's lives and the political economy related to the state. Such circumstances may be necessary as the ability of rural communities to benefit from agriculture may be limited by official constraints such as conservation rules ( van Vliet et al., 2015 ) or informal barriers such as social prejudice ( Kuhnlein et al., 2013 ).

Strand of concern

The study was conducted in Bone Regency, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. It comprises five sub-districts containing fifteen villages ( Figure 1 ). The area has experienced substantial population growth in recent years. Indonesia's 2010 census reported 238 million people, while 2020 found 270 million people ( Wardaningsih, 2021 ), with a land area of 1.9 million square kilometers, so the population density is 141 people per square kilometer.

Figure 1 . Bone Regency, Indonesia.

The annual temperature varies from 26.6 to 27.0°C, while the annual rainfall ranges from 2,000 to 4,000 mm ( Supriadi et al., 2019 ). Natural forests occupy more than 58 percent of Indonesia's territory, with no significant deforestation documented in the last decade ( Mawardi, 2019 ). There are two seasons: wet (October–February) and dry (March–September). The highest river elevation and discharge in Bone Regency occurred in January and February ( Dwiyanto et al., 2016 ). Bad weather events occurred seasonally, such as prolonged droughts in 1972, 1997, and 2019, while major floods occurred in 2003 and 2021. During the drought period, water discharge was around 30–50% lower than usual, whereas during the rainy season water discharge is higher than normal, ranging from 40 to 90% more than the average ( Apriani et al., 2018 ).

Village government administrators are village heads assisted by village officials as elements of government administration. The villagers directly elect the village head through village head elections. The village already has electricity and running water and already has sanitation. For education, the village already has Elementary School, but Junior High School and Senior High School are still limited, and the majority are only found in the city. Rural communities' primary income sources are agriculture, fisheries, and livestock ( Ray et al., 2021 ). Several types of agricultural land were carried out on highland and lowland plots. Rice and cocoa are grown in the lowlands, while corn is mainly grown in the highlands. Onions, carrots, cucumbers, eggplant, tomatoes, and spinach are intercropped. Households consume most of the agricultural products.

The fisherman's produce is also used for household consumption, although occasional sales are expected. Types of fish, such as tuna, skipjack, snapper, and Decapterus , are widely sold in the city market. In addition, some households also raise livestock, such as poultry. Paid agricultural labor also exists, but the work is usually short-term. Some of the reported forms of non-agricultural labor wages include (1) non-professional services (e.g., construction); (2) administrative work for the public (e.g., schools); (3) becoming a member of the village council.

Bone Regency is one of the leading rice-producing districts in South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. Since the early 2010s, perceptions of ecological diversity have driven conservation actions to maintain village livelihoods. Local governments have developed natural resource management in collaboration with communities, including zoning schemes that divide community areas into use and conservation areas (excluding foraging activities) and prohibitions on forest destruction and fishing with dynamite or poison. This policy aims to save animals and help regenerate specific native flora and fauna ( So, 2014 ).

Between March-June 2022, data was collected using participatory approaches. Discussion groups (FGDs) focused on (1) local livelihoods, (2) nutrition, and (3) strategies to address food insecurity ( Krasny et al., 2014 ). During the FGD discussions focused on livelihoods, the discussion participants shared their living conditions, economic activities, the role of household members, and the changing seasons. Participants also described the social classification of the community through local criteria. During the FGD on nutrition, participants jointly make a list of the foods they eat; this discussion provides contextual information for subsequent discussions regarding food limitations and strategies to overcome them.

Discussion use coping methods ( Maxwell et al., 2008 ), participants focused on the specific circumstances that limited food availability and the approaches families used to deal with them. Food deprivation conditions are categorized in “severity scenarios,' which indicate how much household eating patterns are affected. This helps determine which set of coping methods is more commonly used according to varying degrees of a deteriorating situation. Finally, participants detailed the assets mobilized for every coping behavior and the formal norms influencing its implementation.

Fifteen villages contributed to this research, fourteen were interviewed individually, and the rest were grouped into two groups because they have the same livelihood and access to forest and littoral areas. Fifteen participated in the Forum Group Discussion (FGD) ( Table 1 ), and all participants were chosen using a purposive method. Participants were grouped according to land ownership area and income. Livelihood discussion groups aim to get an alternative social description so that male and female residents of various ages are also invited to participate. Meanwhile, the nutrition discussion only involved women charged with preparing food for their families. Because one participant village considered everyone equally good, only one group discussion on coping strategies was conducted. Coping strategies are carried out separately with the “rich” and “poor” populations as a variable of susceptibility to food security ( Horta et al., 2013 ).

Table 1 . Quantity of discussion groups and sources per topic.

One facilitator conducts a discussion group in Indonesian. When required, the fieldwork coordinator aids with the translation into local languages. Discussions were recorded, and freehand notes were collected. Contribution is optional, and written consent is collected from each person after explaining the study goals, participant rights, and data usage. The study obtained ethics approval from Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Administrasi Puangrimaggalatung Ethics Committee.

Handwritten notes and transcribed citations were analyzed using thematic framework analysis (TFA). Food shortage scenarios and coping techniques were identified as the two main topics. According to the severity situations, the first category has three subcategories ( Table 2 ). There are 14 subcategories in the second topic for each of the coping strategies that were found. Some subcategories are directly connected to the livelihood's framework: (financial, physical, social, cultural, and natural).

Table 2 . Situations of food scarcity reported by socioeconomic aspects.

Capital mobilization patterns were identified by grouping coping techniques into categories based on their relevance to various severity situations; consensus ranking was applied ( Maxwell et al., 2008 ). The approach is tailored to the severity scenario; if a strategy is tailored to both situations equally, the number of references in the adjacent category is utilized to establish the final categorization ( Table 3 ).

Table 3 . Allocation of coping methods by socioeconomic aspect and severity scenario.

Native nutrition

Informants consider food filling and nutritious if it consists of rice, fish or meat, eggs, tomatoes, chilies, and stir-fried spinach. And drinks from fruit ingredients, such as oranges, apples, dragon fruit, and avocados. The main agricultural contribution to local food is rice, usually cultivated in the lowlands, and maize, available throughout the season. Residents stated that tomatoes, chilies, spinach, and long beans are typically grown in the house's yard. In contrast, fruit crops, such as chayote, lettuce, cocoa, sweet potatoes, and cassava, are usually produced in the highlands.

The contribution of natural food for the lowlands, which is often consumed, is fish, while for the highlands, it is corn. The fish captured for household use differ from those sold for commerce, such as milkfish. Most lowlanders fish for smaller species such as tuna, skipjack, anchovies, snapper, and mackerel. At the same time, food for the highlands is usually from vegetables such as corn, cassava, sweet potatoes, and pumpkin. Season affects the availability of wild food. Residents report more varieties of fish and maize during the rainy season when high water levels are thought to attract fish and crops to thrive, making farming and fishing easier.

Fishing and foraging for the lowlands (collectively known as fishermen), while farming and foraging (collectively known as farmers) are usually carried out daily. Besides corn, food is rarely stored due to humid climatic conditions for highlanders and residents' preference for fresh produce. Processed food products that are easy to store, such as instant noodles ( indomie ) and pasta, are sometimes added to food; the smoking technique of fish is used more as a culinary option.

Food scarcity

Participants consisted of two discussion groups: the “rich” community and the “poor” group. The results of the FGDs illustrate that there have been no cases of hunger in recent years, and there is always something to eat every day in the community. But the discussion results recognized several factors that affect the community's ability to obtain food in the desired proportion, diversity, or value ( Table 2 ).

First, participants informed that for fishers, going to the sea to catch fish is spontaneous activity; although, in general, fishers manage to get fish to eat, it is not sure what kind of fish they will get every day. This uncertainty is considered more acute if the weather conditions are not good. Seasonal events (strong winds and heavy rains) usually occur in April, limiting fishing mobility. As in the rainy season, many fish species will be scattered on the edge of the sea or river. And for the highlands, vegetables and fruits will be fertile. During the transition from the rainy to the dry season, households whose livelihoods as farmers are negatively affected by the decline in agricultural yields; for fishers who catch fish in rivers, there is a decrease in river water, so the fish will also decrease. These difficulties were worsened by extremely dry or rainy seasons.

The second factor that affects food availability is the unavailability of household labor for the short term due to travel or illness; it interferes with farming and fishing activities for the family's daily needs. The last factor is a health emergency, especially one that requires hospitalization so that households will experience long and medium-term household labor unavailability; this will impact production effectiveness and financial pressure and cover travel and subsistence costs if seeking treatment in the city.

Based on the discussion, the participants described several scenarios related to the increasing condition of food insecurity. All group participants proposed a severity gradient of up to three levels, which was later adopted: (1) mild severity: short-term problems for meeting animal protein, when people find it challenging to fulfill fish or eggs for several days due to unsuccessful farming or fishing, weather effects, or the temporary absence of domestic workers; (2) moderate severity: a more extended period of animal nutrition intake when diets are more dependent on agricultural process. This relates to weather conditions such as heavy rains or droughts and labor unavailability for a week or several days; (3) high severity: a period when families can no longer meet their nutrition needs through farming or fishing, usually because of a health crisis. These conditions lead to poor eating patterns, considering that the capacity of households to buy food is limited due to finances and medical expenses, especially if they travel to the city for health care.

Local approaches to food security improvement

Participants provide details of their opinions on food insecurity scenarios in Table 3 . The “rich” and “poor” groups almost all responded similarly to coping strategies. Common coping behaviors include consuming less popular wild foods, limiting portions, and eating the same foods daily (no fish or meat). One way to avoid poverty, such as selling assets, is only mentioned once and is therefore excluded from the discussion. The only difference observed between participants for the socio-economic group in the form of dependency that seemed to be greater among the “poor” people was the profit-sharing system for the rice fields owners.

Low levels of food scarcity were associated with a response concentrating on managing local resources. This requires additional effort and energy in fishing and farming activities, which adopt rationing strategies and access to food sources. Allotment involves reducing food portion sizes or growing wild food consumption less desirable because of their flavors, such as eating eels, grasshoppers, and paddy birds. In addition, eat the same food source every day, consisting of corn, sweet potatoes, taro, and sago (without meat or fish) for several days until farming and fishing activities can resume.

Medium food severity relates to a strategy of shifting to the environment by adopting measures of nature exploration, collective consumption, mobilization of additional household resources, and a profit-sharing system. The natural exploration is carried out due to weather factors so that the affected people travel further than usual to catch fish; collective consumption depends on sharing food from neighbors or family; additional resource mobilization involves women and children in agricultural activities; undertaking a form of “profit sharing” of agricultural produce, in which households provide agricultural land to neighbors who then share the harvest or trade agricultural produce with grocers.

Responses to food insecurity of high severity focus on access to cash income, taking credit, and exploring protected areas. Increased access to cash is primarily met by unconditional financial assistance from families or selling fish catch or forest products in urban markets. To get wild vegetables or fruit, people sometimes enter conservation areas, where there are usually a lot of vegetables or fruit stocks. Sometimes it is also necessary for the community to take credit with the collateral being livestock, such as cows, to meet their daily needs.

Coping mechanisms and methods of capital utilization

In food scarcity of low intensity, local comments focus on humans as contributing to access to protein sources ( Tables 4 – 6 ). The form of human capital in a healthy family member leads to access to food consumption provided by nature; the participants focus on the role of knowledge and skills possessed. This relates to the ability to identify edible plants or fruits that are not harmful to health and the habit of regulating food patterns daily so that you don't overeat. At this stage, culinary skills and recipes adapted to available ingredients, such as corn products, are the main thing, as well as growing fruits that do not need labor-intensive harvesting.

Table 4 . Addressing food insecurity with low intensity.

Table 5 . Addressing food insecurity with medium intensity.

Table 6 . Addressing food insecurity with high intensity.

At the level of intermediate needs, households apply human, cultural, and social capital. Human capital in healthy household members leads to more vigorous efforts to access agricultural land to forest areas or catch fish in places that have never been visited, thus requiring physical capital such as spears or nets. Furthermore, the informants believe it is essential to have a strong awareness of spiritual values to avoid disturbing sacred sites when farming or fishing. In turn, social capital helps residents access crops and fruits through food-sharing behaviors rooted in traditional patterns of reciprocity as an expression of the bonds and closeness of the village community. This practice of sharing assistance does not require reciprocity on a specific timeframe or comparable exchange. This donation may be repaid at an indeterminate time in the future and other forms. Due to the lack of available labor, households sometimes mobilize women and children in farming and fishing activities. For fishing involvement, women and children are generally considered less understanding due to limited abilities and physical power compared to male fishers. The “rich” households provide agricultural land to the “poor” households so that they will share the results after harvesting. The period for managing this agricultural land varies according to the agreement between the parties.

The variety of equipment, knowledge, and abilities necessary at the most significant degree of necessity for farming or fishing is more limited than in the previous scenario because farming or fishing is aimed explicitly at observing market conditions. Social capital is also vital against severe shocks; establishing good relations with traders is very useful for commercializing crops or marine products. In addition, having family who lives in urban areas will make it easier to help financially for households experiencing health emergencies. Financial capital emerged as a factor to consider while gaining money in the form of credit at the bank, such as fulfilling the needs of agriculture or fishers. Although both “rich” and “poor” informants said they could get credit, the amount of credit that could be obtained depended on the value of their cattle. As for the monthly income in securing credit, only those with a fixed wage (village officials) can meet their food needs with this approach. In all these transactions, social capital is relevant but in the form of acquaintances with individuals who are not community members. This is different from a community-based, mutually supportive relationship; cooperation with external parties requires an agreement for payment.

Adaptation methods at the interaction of societies

Villagers' responses to different levels of food insecurity require engaging in other normative structures; in undergoing low food scarcity, the form of coping leads to community-based rules. The existence of dependence on agricultural products for daily food needs shows the importance of residents' rights to agricultural land. According to research observations, residents always have something to eat, regardless of wealth, they own at least one piece of land, and annual cultivation activities provide immediate access to food, despite the constant nature of foraging practices.

With medium food insecurity, residents are exposed to a mix of local and external regulations. This includes the right of residents to exploit natural resources in their territory and the obligation to respect conservation areas. In addition, the tradition of sharing food with relatives or neighbors; harvest-sharing mechanisms, however, are highly dependent on the market economy. In the market, there is competition among people because they offer the same crops (vegetables, fruits, or fish). Meanwhile, seasonal effects on traditional products to market transactions sometimes create low market prices. Market prices are currently influenced by external factors, such as fluctuations in cooking oil and fuel prices.

This mix of local and global standards is also observed at high levels of food insufficiency. In times of severity following a health emergency, communities depend on agricultural land for essential food sources and exploitation rights in marine areas or forests to obtain vegetables, fruit, or fish to sell. If exploitation is carried out in a conservation area, communication with the village government is required; residents then convey the nature of the emergency and how many resources are needed. If vegetables, fruit, or fish are obtained, villagers face challenges in market economic conditions. The informant explained that selling vegetables, fruit, or fish is difficult to get high profits due to the presence of grocers and the market situation. Village markets are usually purchased by grocers at low prices, while transportation costs to the city are relatively high for urban markets. The informant's explanation of the “greedy” traders illustrates the villagers' obstacles in overcoming these problems.

The explanation of diet, food security, and behavior in dealing with problems in Bone Regency focuses on three things from the socio-economic adaptive of food security in subsistence societies in Indonesia. First, similar to the results of research on nutrition in the socio-ecological environment, villagers have adapted to meet their daily needs through biodiversity, with natural food being the central part of residents' nutritional intake ( Sunderland et al., 2013 ). However, dependence on raw food exposes citizens to constant fluctuations in access to food. Denial activity is inherently difficult to predict and does not guarantee stable access to quality nutrient intake, even though fishers and farmers have substantive skills and work in favorable climatic conditions. Villagers are also vulnerable to bad climates, such as floods or prolonged droughts, thereby reducing the availability of food from nature and directly limiting people's physical access to farming or fishing. Traditional livelihood activities are also vulnerable to the unavailability of labor in households. Given that farming or fishing activities are carried out every day, the unavailability of work due to illness will rapidly impact the fulfillment of food in the household. Health conditions can potentially interfere with the household's ability to meet daily needs if they have bodily disabilities or chronic illnesses. The role of adult men in the household is the main thing; apart from being the head of the household, they are also responsible for agricultural or fishing activities.

Second, there is no indication that poor weather conditions, labor shortages, or health issues are creating hunger or poverty in the area, showing that regional food sources are robust enough to prevent acute food insufficiency ( Diamond-Smith et al., 2019 ). While sharing food from family or neighbors becomes a mitigation measure if there is food insecurity in the medium term in Bone Regency, regular access to nutrition is mostly fulfilled through culturally entrenched community norms that support agricultural land management or fishing. The local wisdom system, intercropping seasonal crops, cultivating crops such as corn in the highlands, gardening in the yard, and ensuring a visit to staple crops throughout the year. During the same period, the agricultural production-sharing system allows residents to farm regardless of their wealth. Previous research has focused on the role of forest resources in insurance mechanisms ( Paumgarten and Shackleton, 2011 ). The results of our study illustrate that for the same socio-economic part, forest and marine products have a role for villagers during food insecurity. This means that forest and aquatic products help provide nutrition for villagers dependent on agricultural and fishing activities through the availability of alternative protein sources (e.g., vegetables or fruits) and cash sources (fish) to buy processed foods that are easy and durable if stored. In addition, although sales of forest or marine products are usually low in the market because it depends on the market situation, as reported in the results of this study and elsewhere ( Vliet et al., 2014 ), it is a practical method to deal with food insufficiency, because most of the villagers have been able to fulfill the most basic needs through agricultural products or fishers.

Third, as stated by the informant, villagers' response to the threat of food insecurity illustrates a sturdy dependence on ecological capital ( Paumgarten et al., 2018 ). How to use it varies according to the level of food insecurity. At a low level of food insecurity, villagers can use a variety of natural foods to create food security. This limited choice illustrates a gradual change in the types of food fulfillment activities by villagers, namely shifting from non-monetary collective consumption to the trade sector. Under heavy pressure, villagers focus on the exchange rate of natural resources as products. As for the prevention of severe food insecurity, the informant explained that it might not be seen as a form of poverty but only described as a failure in the capacity for local livelihoods to meet household food needs. Villagers were forced to move away from their community life into a broad economic activity. For villagers, this is a big challenge because of the transition. Apart from being small economic actors, villagers rarely communicate with city traders and have minimal knowledge of market situations.

Fourth, from several levels of village food insecurity, this situation helps to identify sustainability challenges related to natural ecosystems and subsistence villagers' food security. Although local adaptation to the environment and forest or marine conditions is well maintained to create food security in Bone Regency, it is questionable if food stability will become periodic access to the fulfillment of sufficient nutritious food for healthy living and expected growth (preventing stunting) ( FAO, 2017 ). Of course, research on nutrition shows that traditional food methods can provide a balanced and healthy diet ( Kuhnlein et al., 2013 ). Fluctuations in the quantity and quality of food villagers consume, such as labor shortages and climatic conditions, are common. Historical meteorological data show frequent above-average droughts and floods ( Runtunuwu et al., 2011 ). For example, a 2015 study in Batu City, Malang Province, found that farmers reported stopping agricultural activities during the dry season ( Chiari, 2015 ). At the same time, the lifestyle of subsistence farmers who live in forest areas has increased for energy needs. Research in the Amazon region noted that subsistence means of support provide daily energy needs among 3,200 and 5,900 cal, closely related to seasonal situations ( Duran et al., 2016 ). A temporary inability to meet the caloric intake is likely to impact villagers' health, especially for vulnerable groups such as pregnant and lactating women and toddlers ( Burchi et al., 2011 ).

The design of prospective environmental dynamics raises additional concerns. To date, biodiversity in Bone District has been observed to support alterations in food availability such that times of food insecurity are short-term, and some of the less desirable natural foods are usually available when preferred alternatives are not available. Nevertheless, the local ecological balance could be due to the influence of environmental changes on a grander scale ( Pramova et al., 2012 ). For example, climatological evaluations for parts of Indonesia have noted intensification and potential for drought in the dry season ( Dewi, 2019 ), and data from conservation models show areas rich in biodiversity can overcome threats of severity originating in other regions due to the continued impact of deforestation ( Ataur Rahman and Rahman, 2015 ).

The dependence test of natural capital with other capital produces significance based on the population's capacity to utilize the existing ecosystem. Human capital has a significant role considering that a healthy workforce can only manage natural resources in a subsistence economy. In Indonesia, villagers confront health hazards such as a lack of sanitary infrastructure, restricted access to health care, and living in places where widespread tropical illnesses such as dengue fever ( Wulandari, 2016 ). Uncertainty about the effect of climate change on vector-borne diseases ( Brondízio et al., 2016 ) emphasizes the need to include human capital issues in conservation arguments over food security. Village peoples' food security may be jeopardized not just by repeated short-term labor losses but also by the potential for minor diseases to become health crises owing to a lack of care. Furthermore, endemic disorders might impair people's ability to absorb nutrients from meals ( Sabagh et al., 2021 ).

Food insecurity is severe, yet a significant amount of money emerges as communities are compelled to seek resources in non-community. Cultural assessment and social capital work together as primary natural resource mediators. The style of communal eating that has become the villagers' local wisdom enables them to get food from relatives or neighbors ( Kuhnlein et al., 2013 ). Similarly, environmental knowledge and the ability of communities to cultivate the land are essential for ensuring access to natural food ( Paumgarten and Shackleton, 2011 ). Discussions discuss nature-based techniques that assist villages outside the local setting, where typically, the emphasis has been on the household-level economy ( Ekici and Besim, 2016 ) or measurements of personal nutrition ( Piperata et al., 2011 ). With this community-based support, there are apparent limits since the resources required to meet the nutritional needs of villages may not be accessible locally. For these conditions, networking with outside individuals as social capital becomes a link for offerings to villagers dealing with food insecurity ( Bebbington et al., 2006 ). Link to external resources also shows that it has a vital role in increasing the cultural capital of villagers. Minimal market data access is an economic obstacle that affects market-oriented agriculture or marine products and subsistence households experiencing food insecurity ( Vliet et al., 2014 ).

Some hierarchical obstacles raised concerns about the function of marine or forest components in making appropriate contributions to subsistence-oriented villages experiencing acute food insecurity. Furthermore, villagers' adaptability to the environment supports long-term capital, the value of which is restricted in the market system. The expression of human capital focuses on physical strength, and this physical capital comprises agricultural or fishing equipment ( Almendarez, 2013 ). The qualities that allow a family to follow traditional livelihoods effectively disadvantage it in the larger political economy ( Rigg, 2007 ). Furthermore, physical isolation to protect communities from biological diversity loss often promotes worsening market circumstances for unfavorable bargains ( Vliet et al., 2014 ). This research shows that farmers and fishers are obliged to compete, transportation expenses are considerable, and merchants have pricing control. These obstacles erode environmental sustainability and nature-based nutrition insurance schemes. Furthermore, continual environmental changes harm livelihoods, putting additional strain on crops such as vegetables and fruits as locals resort to the vegetable or fruit commerce to supplement their earnings ( Vliet et al., 2014 ).

Our findings on capital assets have possible implications for global and national policies. Many policies focus on strengthening the agricultural sector by increasing export-oriented production, focusing primarily on commodity crops; these initiatives often ignore pressing local needs, focusing on indirect benefits from ecosystems ( Daw et al., 2011 ), and often unintentionally cause environmental damage. In the rural landscapes we studied, outcomes for food security were linked to biodiversity in terms of ready access to land for local people and human capital. In food security, the main themes considered include social, human, and natural capital; for example, food production depends on natural capital, requires health and knowledge, and often benefits from good social relationships with others ( Wittman et al., 2017 ). These findings indicate that natural resource wealth and human capital influence food security in Bone Regency. It, therefore, seems essential to encourage synergies between food security and biodiversity conservation. As identified in this study, strategies appropriate for specific rural areas must be complemented by strategies tailored to urban areas and possible interactions between different landscapes. For example, in many developing countries, rapid urbanization uses resources generated in rural and suburban areas ( Lerner and Eakin, 2011 ), thereby creating connections between different landscapes. Long-distance relationships between landscapes can also be meaningful. Our findings on the role of human capital and the environment demonstrate the relevance of interactions with places outside a particular landscape via socio-ecological ( Liu et al., 2013 ).

Limitations

There are several barriers to using the participative technique in this investigation. First, while the study team has incorporated several sources, the informants do not constitute a statistically representative sample. This research examines socioeconomic situations and consistently delivers conclusions based on the discussion group and interview data. As a result, it is questionable if this concealed bias could influence informants ( Mosse, 1994 ), limiting the study's generalizability to specific locations.

This research approach does not use strategies for dealing with food emergencies, like as calorie restriction or stunting ( FAO, 2017 ). We explore the exact dimensions of food security that the informants have directly experienced and grasped since the participatory method stresses local representation and knowledge ( Schreckenberg et al., 2016 ). This qualitative study's findings reveal a link between nature and people, which may be utilized as data for future quantitative research on food security. Furthermore, the results of this study give information that may be used to better understand villagers' policy decisions about nutrient intake and resource protection ( Kuhnlein et al., 2013 ).

Because participatory research attempts to explain real situations in a limited amount of time ( Mosse, 1994 ), its limitation is that it does not analyze in-depth knowledge and perception as a social method. Furthermore, concentrating on people's experiences restricts our understanding of the link to outside variables. The resilience report will give preliminary data on complicated and dynamic phenomena, allowing the long-term study to expand knowledge. Future studies will add to firsthand monitoring of villagers' interactions outside the community.

This research examines the role of natural resources in ensuring food security for Indonesian villages. The study's results illustrate how ecosystems do not offer enough protection owing to fluctuating climates, difficulties anticipating farming and fishing activities, and significant food insecurity for families due to labor loss. Furthermore, solutions for substantial food insecurity are implemented outside local socio-ecological conditions, which might harm communities. Moreover, villagers are hesitant to employ tactics not in line with their livelihoods since previous experiences have resulted in the loss of culture and biodiversity ( Kuhnlein et al., 2013 ).

Our findings suggest that the prevailing view of the relationship between food security and natural resources can trigger self-fulfilling prophecies. We see an urgent need to bring social system characteristics back into existing discourses on food security and nature conservation—including issues related to equity, social capital, and people ( Sunderland, 2011 ; Zimmerer, 2013 ). To this end, a socio-ecological systems perspective can provide a helpful way forward. Thus, further research is required to investigate the socio-ecological impact of food security in various combinations of market integration and attempts to exploit natural resources ( Poppy et al., 2014 ). The evaluation is based on more than just environmental factors, dietary intake, and economics. Social structures that enable natural resource cooperation for local food supply and promote the resilience of traditional ecosystems should be evaluated appropriately. Thus, examining people's understanding of food security is necessary for future policy implementation.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Ethics statement

The study obtained ethics approval from Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Administrasi Puangrimaggalatung Ethics Committee. Ethics review and approval/written informed consent was not required as per local legislation and institutional requirements.

Author contributions

YY planning and developing methods in studies and research in Bone Regency, the drafting of articles until the submission process, collecting data, and conducting interviews. AC helping analyze the findings, helping draft articles, participate in making observations and help analyze the results, provide input and participate in compiling and improving the writing, help process data, and perform similarity analysis in articles. Both authors contributed to the report and approved the submitted version.

Funding for this research was provided by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia. The funder had no role in the design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, or publication decision.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology for sponsoring this research and the Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Administrasi Puangrimaggalatung Research and Service Institute. We appreciate the Bone Regency Government for arranging field activities and the villagers for allowing us access to their community.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: coping methods, food security, subsistence farming, rural communities, Indonesia

Citation: Yusriadi Y and Cahaya A (2022) Food security systems in rural communities: A qualitative study. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 6:987853. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.987853

Received: 06 July 2022; Accepted: 02 September 2022; Published: 20 September 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Yusriadi and Cahaya. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Yusriadi Yusriadi, yusriadi.yusriadi@uqconnect.edu.au

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Food Security in the United States: The Major Lapses of the Conventional Food Systems Essay

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Introduction

The meaning of food security, food insecurity in the american perspective, major problems associated with the traditional food systems, american communities affected by food insecurity, my role in the food system.

Even as commercial and peasant farmers continue to increase pressure on farmland for the production of non-food crops, food security continues to dominate major global forums. Global farmlands are gradually losing their historical fertility, food-processing companies are increasingly becoming unstable, and food galleries are becoming emptier.

The issue of food security is a universal dilemma that has struck several nations across the world, even as climate continues to be unpredictable, and the events of hunger and drought continue to occur repeatedly. The intent of this essay is to give an in-depth meaning of food security, the perspective of food insecurity to the case of the United States, the major lapses of the conventional food systems, and the American communities that frequently remain affected by food insecurity.

Food security may refer to the sufficient accessibility of nutritious, safe, and religiously and culturally appropriate food to all the people across the world. Food security may also depict a situation whereby all communities of the world, regardless of their ethnic backgrounds, religious beliefs, political affiliations, and socioeconomic statuses, rightfully enjoy unlimited access to reliable and affordable food that is nutritious and safe for human consumption.

Food security is also a state whereby all the people across the continents are capable of accessing food that is sufficient in quantity and quality, depending on their daily nutritional demands. The concept of quantity applies because food has to be adequate to feed the populations sufficiently. The concept of quality applies because food has to be safe and nutritious.

Despite the United States seeking equitable access to economic food resources and physical food resources, food insecurity in the American perspective comes in a disparity manner. American food insecurity occurs when the vulnerable groups of people in different communities are suffering an acute shortage of ability to have an economic and physical access to safe, nutritious, and religiously and culturally appropriate food.

Food insecurity in America is eminent when children are facing a devastating shortage of adequate food that is nutritious and safe for human consumption. Food insecurity in the United States also becomes eminent when the elderly, the ethnic minority, and the rural people, lack access to food of the right quality and quantity, due to their mobility conditions and other socioeconomic situations.

The foremost problem associated with the American conventional food systems is lack of food maintenance. The traditional American food systems lacked proper food maintenance because they lacked proper food harvesting techniques, they lacked proper food preservation methods, and they lacked ample storage infrastructures.

Although the traditional food systems are more nutritious and safer compared to the foods produced through the contemporary technologies and stored through the modern industrial systems, they lack their sustained value because of poor preservation. Since the modern industrial food systems replaced the traditional methods of producing and preserving food, food security has improved tremendously across the continents. The traditionally gathered foods have never proven significant in dealing with the modern food insecurity. The replacement of traditional galleries with industries is worthwhile.

Although hunger is a universal problem that affects all the global communities, food insecurity in United States affects the minority ethnicities unfairly. The most affected minority communities are those that make up the biggest minority groups. The ethnic communities of America that often face food insecurity are large minority communities.

These communities involve the African American ethnic communities and the Latino minority population, which report constant events of food shortages. In the American demographic statistics and history, the two minority communities have remained disproportionately affected by poverty, food insecurity, and unemployment misfortunes. These two ethnic communities of the United States live in the rural, the suburban, and the underdeveloped cities of America. These are areas, where racial poverty, lack of education and unemployment, are major social concerns.

My major role in the modern food system is to ensure appropriate use of the available food in the markets, at home, and within the institution. People must use the right amount of food required by the body tissues to enable the body systems work properly. I must practice suitable cooking. Suitable cooking means cooking the right amount of food, without wasting any food amount that may deem important somewhere else in the world.

My other significant role in the food system is ensuring an appropriate budgeting of food to avoid unnecessary food decay, which literally leads to loss of food. Lastly, my other role in the food security is sensitizing the local communities about the appropriate use of farmland.

Food insecurity is becoming a growing concern in many nations. Food security primarily means an unlimited economic and physical access to food that is nutritious, safe, and culturally and religiously acceptable. Although hunger is a universal problem that affects many people across the world, the situation may sometimes be disproportionate in some parts of the world, depending on several socioeconomic dynamics.

In America, poverty, unemployment, and old age are some of the variables that determine access to food, as well as define the situation of food insecurity in the nation. In America, there is food insecurity when the elderly, the ethnic minority, the children, and the rural and suburban populations report considerable incidences of hunger. Such situations make the issue of food insecurity a complex phenomenon.

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The unmet demand of food security in East Africa: review of the triple challenges of climate change, economic crises, and conflicts

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• Abdulkadir Mohamed Abdullahi 1 ,
• Roice Bwambale Kalengyo 2 &
• Abdimalik Ali Warsame 1  

East Africa struggles with a profound challenge in ensuring food security amidst the convergence of climate change, economic crises, and conflicts. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the interconnected and compounding effects of these three factors on the region’s food security landscape. It investigates the complex ways in which shifting climatic patterns disrupt agricultural systems, exacerbating food scarcity and amplifying vulnerabilities among marginalized communities. The study also examines the intertwined impact of economic downturns, which diminish access to resources, disrupt supply chains, and deepen food insecurity. Furthermore, the paper scrutinizes the ramifications of persistent conflicts, which not only displace populations but also destabilize agricultural production, aggravating food shortages. To achieve the objective of this, review the authors have collected the relevant documents through search engines of Web of Science, Google, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Science Direct databases. This review found that climate change, economic instability, and conflict are the primary challenges to food security in East Africa. Climate change exacerbates extreme weather events, rising temperatures, and pest infestations, reducing agricultural productivity and economic growth. Economic instability stems from a lack of industrialization, dependence on foreign aid, and significant investment gaps, resulting in persistent poverty and underdevelopment. Additionally, conflict and instability disrupt agricultural activities, displace populations, and restrict access to essential resources, further aggravating food insecurity. The study emphasizes the necessity for coordinated efforts among governments, international organizations, and local communities to navigate these intersecting crises and establish sustainable pathways toward enhanced food security in the region.

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1 Introduction

The United Nations' 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, established in 2015, outlines 17 Sustainable Development Goals with 169 corresponding targets to guide international efforts towards sustainable development by 2030 [ 1 ]. Specifically, SDG 2 aims to address all forms of hunger and food and nutritional insecurity [ 1 ]. Despite significant progress in reducing hunger, combating malnutrition, and enhancing food security, considerable challenges persist. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World report reveals that the population experiencing hunger has increased to levels recorded a decade ago [ 2 ]. Approximately 1 billion individuals are food- and nutrient-insecure, placing them at heightened risk of diet-related non-communicable diseases [ 3 ]. The emerging "triple burden" of malnutrition, encompassing obesity, undernutrition, and micronutrient deficiencies, has now become the leading cause of poor health globally [ 4 ].

According to Wagler et al., [ 5 ], food security is the state in which individuals have reliable access to adequate quantities of safe and nutritious food to support their normal growth, development, and an active, healthy lifestyle. This multi-dimensional concept encompasses the availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability of food supplies [ 6 ]. Climate-related risks and food insecurity disproportionately impact the most vulnerable regions globally, including West Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa, and South Asia [ 7 ]. This critical issue is projected to persist in the coming decades due to factors such as localized population growth, limited socioeconomic resources, ongoing regional political conflicts and climate crisis, with 40–50% of the world's undernourished population residing in Sub-Saharan Africa [ 8 ].

In 2021, the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) stated that around 193 million individuals, equivalent to 21.3% of the world’s population, would face heightened food insecurity, a significant increase from 108 million people, or 11.3%, in 2016 [ 9 ]. In 2019, 821.6 million people worldwide suffered from hunger, and 2 billion individuals, representing 26.4% of the global population, did not have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food [ 10 ]. In Africa, between 2000 and 2020, food insecurity was increased from 25 to 37%, with a brief decline in the middle of the years [ 11 ].

Africa experiences a markedly elevated level of food insecurity in comparison to other regions globally [ 12 ]. Over 50% of the African population is at risk of experiencing extreme food insecurity [ 13 ] East Africa had the highest food insecurity rate in 2018, with 63% of the population affected, followed by Southern Africa at 54%, West Africa at 48%, and North Africa at 48%. Climate change, conflict, and economic issues are the primary reasons leading to increased food insecurity in East Africa [ 14 , 15 ].

The East African region, frequently designated as Eastern Africa, generally encompasses the countries situated in the eastern segment of the African continent. The precise composition of East Africa can fluctuate depending on the context, but it typically comprises the following nations: Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti, Eritrea, South Sudan, and Madagascar [ 16 ]. East Africa, home to 370 million people, faces significant food security challenges, with approximately 40 percent of the population having poor access to food [ 17 ].

Over 265 million people across East Africa live on less than $1.90 per day, rendering them particularly susceptible to food insecurity [ 18 ]. Recent studies have highlighted the concerning trends in compound extremes of rainfall and temperature across the region. The high occurrence of these events has had many negative impacts on human security, as the population is largely dependent on rain-fed agriculture [ 19 ]. Studies between 2015 and 2017 found that around 72.9 million people in the region were undernourished. Additionally, 2.7 million children under 5 had wasting, 14.7 million under 5 s were stunted, and 1.5 million under 5 s were overweight [ 20 ].

Recognizing the gravity of this challenge, recent research highlights the complex and interconnected drivers of food insecurity, including the impacts of climate change, increased frequency of extreme weather events, economic shocks, and conflict [ 21 , 22 ]. Consequently, a comprehensive understanding of these factors is necessary to develop effective policies and interventions to achieve the SDG 2 targets [ 23 ]. Climate change is a natural process occurring on Earth. It has become a significant concern due to its widespread impacts on agriculture, water resources, markets, and global natural resources [ 7 ]. In developing and developed countries, risks from extreme climate impacts reveal higher levels of vulnerability with higher confidence on projected increases in droughts, heat waves and floods [ 7 ].

Beyond the direct impacts of climate change, the East African region has experienced economic shocks and conflict, which have compounded the challenges facing food systems [ 24 ]. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted supply chains, reduced incomes, and increased food prices, making it more difficult for vulnerable populations to access adequate nutrition [ 25 ]. Similarly, ongoing conflicts in countries like Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan and South Sudan have displaced millions of people, destroyed agricultural infrastructure, and disrupted food production and distribution [ 26 ].

The East African region has a long history of political instability and conflict, which have had significant impacts on food security and agricultural production [ 17 ]. Political conflict and civil war, which are common in the region, have compounded the challenges facing food systems. This is evidenced by the displacement of over 30% of pastoralists in East Africa due to climate change [ 27 ]. The civil war in Sudan and South Sudan, the conflict in the Tigray region of Ethiopia, and the ongoing insecurity in Somalia are all examples of the political instability in the region. These conflicts have displaced millions of people, destroyed farms and livestock, and disrupted trade and food distribution networks, leading to severe food shortages and famine-like conditions in affected areas [ 15 ].

The current food security situation in East Africa remains extremely alarming due to the combined effects of climate change [ 17 ], economic crises [ 25 ], and conflicts [ 26 ]. This complex issue requires multifaceted solutions, as no single approach can adequately address the interconnected problems affecting food security in the region [ 28 ]. The issue of food security in this region is devastating, exacerbated by political instability, economic hardship, and climate crises throughout the region's history. Consequently, these factors have worsened food insecurity and significantly reduced the resilience of the local population. However, as far as the authors is aware, no comprehensive review or research has been conducted on this topic specifically in the context of East Africa or individual countries within the region. This indicates a lack of consolidated evidence on the devastating impacts of these threats on food security, hindering the implementation of effective short-term and long-term measures. While prior investigations have focused on individual factors [ 13 , 15 , 29 ], this research offers a comprehensive analysis of how these three interrelated issues—climate change, economic crises, and conflicts—collectively contribute to food insecurity in East Africa. Additionally, it provides practical, evidence-based interventions for achieving zero hunger in the region. Therefore, this review is crucial for informing decisions by governments and international organizations on how best to mitigate the severe impacts of these threats on food security in East Africa.

2 Material and methods

2.1 review methodology.

The study employed a scoping review methodology, which follows the framework developed by Arksey and O'Malley [ 30 ], to address the complex and broad nature of the topic and related studies. In addition, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist was utilized to guide the reporting process [ 31 ].

Scoping reviews provides an appropriate methodology when the goal is to map the existing body of literature on a topic, identify key concepts, and explore the range of available [ 31 ]. This approach enables the inclusion of diverse research methodologies to more comprehensively and deeply understand the current knowledge on a particular subject [ 32 ]. It has been argued that the scoping review approach enhances rigor by reducing biased searches, while also providing focus and boundaries for the review [ 33 ].

To achieve the objective of this review, we collected relevant information from various academic databases, including Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Science Direct, focusing on peer-reviewed articles published between 2010 and 2024. Additionally, we identified relevant grey literature by reviewing reports from the UN, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, an eight-country trade bloc in East Africa. Our search strategy adhered to the PRISMA-ScR guidelines for scoping reviews [ 34 ].

2.1.1 Identification, screening, and inclusion

We selected articles and grey literature according to the following inclusion criteria: focus on food security as the main topic, publication between 2010 and 2024, food security as the setting, and key study terms such as food security, East Africa, climate change, economic crisis, and conflicts. The review process focused on food security in broad terms, without addressing the specific Sustainable Development Goal 2. It also did not identify the particular country within the East African region mentioned in the introduction. Additionally, publications in languages other than English were excluded from the analysis.

Duplicate and outdated articles were manually removed. Then, we screened the articles in a step-wise process: by title, abstract, and full text. We also screened the grey literature sources based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Through this process, we identified 34 out of 340 peer-reviewed articles and 24 out of 76 grey literature sources for the scoping review. The reasons for excluding articles and grey literature are provided in Fig.  1 . The included publications vary in the depth of their findings.

Prisma flowchart for study selection

2.2 Recent studies on the multidimensional food ecosystem in Africa

Food security is attained when individuals have consistent access to a sufficient quantity of nourishing food that aligns with their dietary requirements and choices to support a healthy lifestyle [ 35 ]. The world population is expected to reach 8.6 billion by 2030 and 9.8 billion by 2050, with the majority of this increase occurring in Africa [ 14 ]. Climate change presents a significant and swiftly growing danger to the food and nutrition security of impoverished small-scale farmers worldwide [ 36 ].

Climate change in Africa has led to decreased agricultural output, resulting in around 286 million individuals experiencing hunger and malnutrition due to food insecurity [ 37 ]. Sub-Saharan Africa has a higher prevalence of food insecurity and inadequate micronutrient intake [ 38 ]. Over-reliance on rainfed agriculture, eating food with low nutritional value and antinutritional solid components, violence, natural disasters linked to climate change, economic downturns, widespread poverty and inequality, and the regular occurrence of crop diseases and pests are the main causes of the problem [ 39 ].

Climate change in East Africa has caused a decrease in genetic diversity, resulting in increased food insecurity affecting more than 18 million people [ 14 ]. The genetic resources in this region are threatened by factors like population growth, invading species, agricultural changes, and intensified land usage [ 40 ].

The agriculture and water sectors are vital for fostering economic change, sustainable livelihoods, and development, particularly in developing nations [ 41 ]. The 2014 Malabo Declaration by the African Union highlights the significance of enhancing agricultural productivity to boost economic growth, create jobs, and eliminate hunger and malnutrition in Africa [ 42 ]. Agricultural development is essential for economic growth and the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as well as for the water sector.

The Food and Agriculture Organisation has recorded extensive damage to pastures and crops in East Africa, particularly in Agro-pastoral areas of Eastern Ethiopia, Central Somalia, and Northern Kenya, due to the Desert Locust infestation [ 43 ]. The 2020 IPC study indicates significant food insecurity in the region, impacting around 8.5 million individuals in Ethiopia, 3.1 million in Kenya, and 1.1 million in Somalia. Riaz identified COVID-19, environmental shocks, conflict, DL, and economic crises as the primary causes of food insecurity [ 44 ].

According to Pinstrup-Anderson and Cohen [ 45 ], currently, 828 million people do not have adequate access to food. 25% of the population lives in sub-Saharan Africa (210 million), 31% in East and Southeast Asia and South Asia (258 and 254 million), 7.6% in Latin America and the Caribbean, and 5% in North Africa and the Near East. The future of Africa appears grim. With the increasing population and its escalating demands on the environment, a rise in food insecurity is anticipated. Approximately 39% of individuals in sub-Saharan Africa experience malnutrition. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) predicted in 1996 that food insecurity in the region would increase until 2010, contrasting with a global drop, with an estimated 680 million people facing food insecurity by 2010.

As can be observed from Table  1 , the prevalence of undernourishment varies greatly across East Africa, with some countries having rates as high as 33%. The Food Security Risk Index, which measures the severity of food insecurity, also varies from country to country. The countries with the highest Food Security Risk Index scores are Burundi, Eritrea, Somalia, and South Sudan.

Multiple causes such as poverty, conflict, climate change, and inadequate infrastructure contribute to food insecurity in East Africa. Poverty significantly contributes to food insecurity by restricting individuals' ability to obtain food. Conflict can also interrupt food production and distribution, resulting in food insecurity. Climate change is hindering agricultural growth in certain regions of East Africa, while inadequate infrastructure complicates the transportation of food from abundant areas to those in need. The global community is addressing the issue of food insecurity in East Africa. The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) is a prominent organisation addressing this matter. FAO offers diverse programmes and initiatives to enhance food security in East African countries.

Gibson, [ 46 ] in his book “The Feeding of Nations: Redefining Food Security for the 21st Century”, classifies many forms of vulnerability. FIVIMS classifies groups based on occupation (fishermen and pastoralists), geographical location (marginal urban or forest residents), culture (bushmen and nomads), demography (children under 5), social status (refugees and the displaced), and physical condition (the disabled and severely ill). The complexity of many possible divisions presents a challenge. Elderly relatives of Kalahari bus drivers and sedentary indigenous children under five in Mauritania experience distinct food security challenges.

The following provides a succinct review of four of the most vulnerable categories, starting from the macro to the micro, to simplify the fundamentals. Firstly, Vulnerable locations: These locations have delicate, well-balanced ecosystems or significantly depend on the supply and production of food and food-related components. These could become subject to resource mismanagement, degradation, and catastrophic weather events like floods or droughts. Although primarily rural, such susceptible places can also be urban, which has an impact when many people, families, or entire communities depend on a specific location or region.

Thus, these people will suffer from any significant changes to the land's sustainability, productivity, or supply. Second, Vulnerable Groups: These are typically homogeneous groups, including women, children under five, the impoverished, seasonal agricultural workers, recent immigrants, and nomadic or transhumant populations (whose seasonal migration usually takes place between high pastures in the summer and lower valleys in the winter). These communities rarely have significant control over food security in terms of continuity, either material or financial. The third category is called "vulnerable households," which refers to family units that are frequently grouped together by vulnerable typologies. Examples of these include households headed by women or those that are large or have a high prevalence of diseases like tuberculosis or AIDS. Finally, vulnerable individuals are typically those members of the community who are particularly at risk of food insecurity and who require additional care or attention. Infants and kids under five, expectant or nursing moms, the sick, the elderly, people with disabilities, etc. are among them.

This review of the literature discovers that climate change, conflict, and economic crises are the main challenges to achieving food security in East Africa. However, what is lacking in the current literature is a proper categorization of how and in which capacities the triple challenges hinder food security in East Africa. This paper, therefore, puts forward a set of categories by which climate change, conflict, and economic crises obstruct the path of achieving food security in the region.

2.3 The current hunger crisis in East Africa

In developing economies, agricultural production is the primary source of food security for millions of people. The vulnerability is notably serious in Africa, where agricultural output provides 66 per cent of the active population with their principal source of income [ 47 ]. Food security is a significant problem for many East African households. There is evidence that households with the lowest food security, particularly those led by women, are less inclined to adopt innovative agricultural technology and practices that may enhance their farm's productivity and make them more resilient to climate change [ 48 ] Food security Conditions in Uganda have rather worsened by the previous Covid 19, They used to at least go to town, bring some food, and also give them at least a substantial uptick of about 1USD for home use to maybe buy them milk for their children's nutritional demands. However, because of the coronavirus disease outbreak, they are no longer receiving money [ 49 ].

Rural households face various constraints such as limited investment capital, inadequate access to natural resources, lack of inputs like labour, and insufficient knowledge, which hinder their ability to try out new agricultural technologies related to crops, livestock, water, soil, and agroforestry knowledge [ 50 ]. The Malabo Declaration of 2014 highlights the essential role of food security and nutrition in the growth of the continent [ 13 ] Africa has the greatest prevalence of undernourishment, despite the Malabo agenda [ 51 ] Progress in reducing hunger has been sluggish over the past twenty years, with the number of hungry individuals in East Africa rising by 20% in 1990. Between 2000 and 2002, the percentage of malnourished individuals in Kenya was 33%, in Uganda it was 19%, and in Tanzania it was 44% [ 52 ].

The frequency of undernourishment in Sub-Saharan Africa rose from 20.8% to 22.7% during 2015 and 2016. In 2016, the number of undernourished individuals increased from 200 to 224 million, accounting for 25% of the 815 million undernourished people globally [ 48 ]. The proportion of the population experiencing acute food insecurity due to limited access to food has risen in the area [ 53 ] Other than Djibouti, the selected East African states have a greater prevalence of undernourishment compared to sub-Saharan African countries, where it stands at 20.8 percent. The World Bank claimed that in 2015, the prevalence of undernourishment in Ethiopia was 28.8%, in Kenya 19.1%, in Rwanda 41.1%, in Uganda 39%, and in Tanzania 32.3% [ 54 ]. Factors contributing to the widespread undernourishment in the regions are poverty, conflict, climate change, environmental degradation, and political instability [ 51 ].

In line with the above background and by using secondary literature, the following section of this paper answers the question of how and in which capacities the triple challenges (climate change, conflict, and economic crises) hinder food security in East Africa. By focusing on climate change, conflict, and economic crises as the core obstacle to food security in the region, we will also explain three strategic solutions (A. Addressing Climate Change; B. Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding; C. Sustainable Agricultural Development) that we can use to address the challenges.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 challenges of achieving food security in east africa, 3.1.1 climate change.

The challenge of achieving the SDGs is further compounded by the complexities brought about by climate change SDGs [ 55 ]. Africa has been recognized as one of the continents most affected by climate change due to two primary factors: its geographical location within the warming tropics and its limited human, social, and economic resilience to cope with the impacts of climate change [ 56 ].

The East African region is now experiencing recurrent obstacles to food production, which could exacerbate owing to climate change without proper adaptation measures [ 57 ]. Dell et al.’s research shows that a one-degree Celsius increase in temperature in developing nations is linked to a 3% reduction in agricultural production, resulting in a 1.3% fall in economic growth [ 58 ]. In East Africa, increasing populations will raise the demand for water and food. Prolonged extreme climate events, such as higher temperatures, rising sea levels, droughts, floods, storms, and acidification, will negatively affect agricultural yields, putting additional pressure on already scarce water resources and reducing crop yields [ 59 ].

The East African region is experiencing an influx of insects and weed seeds due to the increasing temperatures and water levels [ 15 , 60 ]. The infestation of locusts in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia during 2019–2020 resulted in the damage of 1.25 million hectares of land, leading to a financial requirement increase by nearly $70 million for response efforts [ 61 ]. The current drought in East Africa has already led to the loss of over 1.5 million animals and a significant reduction in maize production [ 62 ].

An estimated 20.3 million individuals are experiencing food insecurity in Sudan, with similar situations affecting approximately 20.1 million people in Ethiopia, 7.4 million people in South Sudan, 6.5 million people in Somalia, and 5.4 million people in Kenya due to conflict and instability, economic difficulties, and climate-related challenges [ 63 ]. However, the nutritional status remains concerning across Eastern Africa where over 4.3 million children as well as an additional 743,000 pregnant and breastfeeding mothers are forecasted to be affected by severe malnutrition in Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia [ 63 ].. The Horn of Africa region has experienced three consecutive below-average rainy seasons [ 64 ].

Addressing the impacts of climate change on food security is crucial as global temperatures increase. This involves decreasing greenhouse gas emissions, supporting climate-adaptive farming methods, and enhancing social support systems for individuals facing challenges in obtaining food [ 65 ].

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [ 66 ], reported that climate change is impacting food security in various ways, such as:

Reduced crop yields: climate variability is causing increasingly severe weather phenomena, such as prolonged dry spells, excessive rainfall, and high temperatures. These conditions have the potential to harm crops and diminish their productivity.

Increased pests and diseases: climate fluctuations are leading to more extreme weather events, including extended periods of drought, heavy rainfall, and elevated temperatures. These circumstances could negatively impact agricultural yields and reduce overall crop output.

Disruptions to food supply chains: climate change has the potential to interrupt food supply chains by causing harm to infrastructure, including roads and bridges, as well as complicating the transportation of food.

Rising food prices: rising food costs can result from a combination of factors such as lower crop yields, heightened pest and disease presence, and disturbances in food distribution networks. This may pose challenges for individuals in purchasing affordable food.

The effects of climate change on food security are most keenly experienced by the most impoverished and susceptible individuals worldwide. These individuals frequently reside in regions that are already susceptible to extreme climates and have scarce resources to manage the extra difficulties brought about by climate change [ 67 ].

3.1.2 Economic challenges

East Africa consists of thirteen nations with diverse characteristics. The region is generally characterized by a weak economy and low levels of human development, with most nations being low-income except for Kenya and Djibouti, which fall into the lower-middle-income category [ 15 ]. In 2018, the anticipated real GDP growth rate for East Africa was 5.7%, slightly lower than the previous year's rate but still the highest among all African regions. It is expected to maintain a robust growth rate, expanding by 5.9% in 2019 and reaching 6.1% in 2020. However, there is significant diversity across countries within the region; for example, South Sudan experienced a contraction of -3.8%, while Rwanda and Ethiopia saw impressive growth rates of 7.2% and 7.7% respectively in that same period. Ethiopia, Rwanda, Kenya, and Djibouti have strong agricultural, services, and industrial sectors driving their rapid economic expansion. However, South Sudan (– 3.8%), Burundi (1.4%), and Somalia (2.9%). experienced negative or low growth due to instability affecting economic activity [ 68 ].

Moreover, the economic framework and growth patterns in East Africa are characterized by a lack of industrialization, resulting in insufficient job opportunities, economic variety, and product distinction [ 15 , 69 ] Despite this overall underwhelming performance, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda have recently made progress in the field of industrialization. All East African countries import manufactured goods while primarily exporting raw materials. The regulatory structure sets out the terms for exchanging manufactured products for essential commodities. Until 2003–2013 when global commodity prices began to rise again after almost a century-long decline [ 70 ].

East Africa faces a variety of challenging risks that could hinder economic growth and development prospects. Some nations have specific economic and social traits, such as being landlocked or small island states, relying on a few export products, and experiencing volatile export revenues. They are also vulnerable to natural disasters due to heavy reliance on agriculture and its unstable output. Persistent deficits in the current account and increasing foreign debt are other significant concerns. State fragility poses potential threats to Burundi, Somalia, South Sudan, and Ethiopia to some extent. The decline in global commodity prices has negatively affected the terms of trade for almost all nations heavily reliant on basic commodities for exports.

Additionally, the significant growth of the region has been driven by considerable investment that exceeds domestic savings. The persistent current account deficit is closely connected with the gap between domestic investment and savings (or external gap). Moreover, economic challenges in Ethiopia, Burundi, and South Sudan including high inflation, currency devaluation, shortages of gasoline and dollars continue to hinder economic progress. Despite noticeable economic expansion in most nations recently, a large part of the population still grapples with food insecurity, poverty levels are high and there's insufficient human development. Except for Kenya, all East African countries have low human development classification. Eritrea, Burundi, Djibouti, and South Sudan have subsequent lowest human development. Widespread poverty also prevails especially in rural areas; regions where South Sudan, Burundi, Eritrea, and Somalia are situated as per Africa [ 70 ].

3.1.3 Conflict and instability

Conflict and instability are closely related to food insecurity, and this relationship has been extensively studied and documented in academic literature. Here is an overview of how conflict and instability contribute to food insecurity, along with some key references to include:

According to Dube Vargas, [ 71 ], conflict and instability have disrupted agricultural activities and food production in several ways. Armed conflicts often lead to the displacement of populations, which can result in abandoned fields, destroyed infrastructure, and a lack of access to agricultural resources. This disruption can significantly reduce food production and availability, as shown in the study by Collier Hoeffler [ 72 ] on Greed and Grievance in the Civil War. Oxford Economic Papers, 56(4), 563–595, the findings revealed that conflict and instability often lead to losing livelihoods, making it difficult for people to afford or access food. This can result in destroying businesses, markets, and job opportunities, leaving individuals and communities economically vulnerable.

Conflict-induced displacement can result in the loss of land and assets, making it challenging for affected populations to produce their food. Internally displaced persons (IDPs) and refugees often rely on aid, and their limited resources make them susceptible to food insecurity [ 73 ]. Conflict and instability can disrupt food distribution systems, making transporting and delivering food to affected areas difficult. This can lead to food shortages and price spikes, further exacerbating food insecurity [ 74 ]. Conflict zones are often dangerous for humanitarian organizations to operate in. Limited access can hinder aid and relief efforts, leaving vulnerable populations without the necessary assistance to meet their food needs [ 75 ].

3.2 The way forward: strategies and solutions

3.2.1 addressing climate change (adaptation and mitigation strategies).

Climate change has significant impacts on food security. It is crucial to explore options beyond agriculture to address climate change impacts and enhance food security for disadvantaged populations [ 76 ]. Dealing with climate change adaptation, mitigation, and food supply requires multi-level decision-makers to navigate a network of interconnected concerns.

There is a wealth of literature on how climate change affects food security in underprivileged nations. Employing adaptation strategies like using heat-resistant crop varieties, adopting improved crops, adjusting cropping patterns, and diversifying agricultural produce can significantly mitigate the effects of climate change and reduce the risk of hunger to as low as 28% [ 77 ]. In hot and arid areas, anticipated agricultural income may decline by 43%. Farmers and experts recommend various adaptation measures, including crop diversification, improved germplasm utilization, enhancements in soil and water management, and better access to fertilizers and equipment [ 78 ].

Multiple empirical studies have examined how farmers have adapted to the negative consequences of shifting climate conditions and their influence on food security [ 79 , 80 , 81 ]. Notably, Di Falco et al., [ 82 ] found that Ethiopian farmers' adaption tactics to climate change were most influenced by knowledge, extension services, and access to loans. Webber et al. [ 83 ] Discovered that farmers’ capacity to adjust to climate change was impeded by characteristics such their socioeconomic level, perception of climate change, labour availability, and access to financing. In 2016, Douxchamps and colleagues found that applying adaptation methods such crop diversification, soil and water conservation, improved crop varieties, and fertilisers increased food security for certain households in different African countries ([ 80 ] Below et al. (2015) identify the main challenges impeding adaptation efforts in Tanzania as a lack of financial resources, including land, manpower, money, and equipment, as well as insufficient cooperation and conflicts between traditional agricultural systems, such as cassava farming and grazing [ 79 ].

On the other hand, while in our gathered literature from multi-perspective sources, we found the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), specifically the Working Group III (WG III) conclusions helpful in explaining how to address food insecurity through many categories in the literature we collected from multiple sources [ 84 ]. The IPCC AR5 WG III emphasises the need of decreasing emissions from agriculture, forestry, and land use (AFOLU) to mitigate climate change in the twenty-first century, as these sectors are the primary sources of most non-CO 2 greenhouse gas emissions and carbon storage on land. Dittmer et al. [ 85 ] stressed the importance of clearly incorporating agricultural emissions into national mitigation targets and strategies to achieve the Paris Agreement's two-degree Celsius goal [ 85 ].

This research review elaborates on how implementing mitigation strategies across the entire food system, from production to consumption, can aid in reaching global mitigation goals and improving food security and nutrition. To understand the spectrum of mitigation potential of food systems, it is crucial to consider scenarios where efficiency gains and dietary changes due to increasing income per capita are included in business-as-usual projections [ 86 ].

The AR5 classified mitigation measures ranging from fundamental ways like as improving agricultural and animal management to more sophisticated techniques like afforestation, soil carbon storage, and BECCS projects. P. Smith et al. [ 84 ] highlighted two main groups of mitigation pathways from the food system.

Supply-side: Agricultural emissions can be decreased by improving production efficiencies and increasing carbon sequestration in soils and biomass. Energy-related emissions in the food system can be lowered by enhancing energy efficiency and substituting fossil fuels with carbon-free sources like biomass.

Demand side: Greenhouse gas emissions could be reduced by altering diets, decreasing food waste, and using wood for cooking.

Changes in food habits that reduce production-related GHG emissions and adjustments to land use that absorb carbon are examples of demand-side mitigation techniques. On both the supply and demand sides, reducing food loss and waste can help reduce GHG emissions.

3.2.2 Sustainable agricultural development

In this section, we identified some key strategies and approaches that East African countries can adopt to achieve their full potential for food security:

Government decisions to Invest in research and innovation are crucial to achieving Sustainable Agricultural Development [ 87 ]. This could include promoting research and development in agriculture to improve crop varieties, pest resistance, and productivity, as well as promoting innovation in farming techniques, such as drought-resistant crops, organic farming, and precision agriculture. Over the past two decades, agricultural production, food, and nutrition security have been under significant stress [ 88 ]. On the other hand, the need for access to land, water, and seeds for smallholder farmers, particularly women, as well as developing and enforcing land tenure systems that protect the rights of small-scale farmers could be a great way to ensure sustainable agriculture [ 89 ].

Enhancing agricultural extension services is also important regarding knowledge and information sharing [ 89 ]. This involves strengthening extension services to provide farmers with the knowledge and skills needed to adopt modern and sustainable farming practices and use technology, such as mobile apps and SMS, to disseminate information to remote areas. In many regions of the globe, it is advised to apply smart practices and technology for climate-resilient agriculture. There is a dire need to bring forth climate-smart agricultural alternatives, such as drought-resistant crops and conservation farming, as well as developing and implementing early warning systems to help farmers prepare for extreme weather events [ 90 ]. Smallholder farmers who do not have access to credit and financial services in the East Africa region require support to invest in their farms and develop farmer cooperatives and associations to enable collective marketing and bargaining power [ 62 ].

In sub-Saharan Africa, postharvest losses (PHL) have been recognized as a major obstacle to attaining food and nutrition security [ 91 ]. They are investing in infrastructure and technology to improve agricultural products’ storage, transportation, and processing and promoting good agricultural practices crucial to minimize losses [ 92 ]. Developing rural infrastructure is essential to connect remote areas to markets and expand access to electricity and reliable energy sources for processing and value addition, which means achieving sustainable food security. Strengthening the value chain can also increase the value addition of agricultural products by developing and supporting agribusinesses [ 93 ]. In addition, promoting local and regional trade significantly reduces dependence on imports [ 94 ].

In order to create and implement policies that support sustainable agriculture, protect natural resources, and enhance food security, sustainable agricultural development must have both governance and policy. This involves ensuring transparent and equitable land and resource management as well as fighting corruption [ 95 ]. Likewise, it is impossible to overlook the need to offer access to market data and information. This means a lot to provide farmers with insights into pricing and market trends by supporting e-commerce and online marketing platforms, information-sharing networks, and market data systems.

On the other hand, risk mitigation approaches can play a crucial role in enhancing the resilience of farmers. This includes establishing insurance and social safety nets to assist farmers in coping with setbacks and losses and fostering agricultural diversification [ 96 ]. It is believed that vocational training in agriculture and agribusiness, as well as funding educational and training initiatives that increase the capabilities of the agricultural workforce, particularly young people, can help the resilience of the farmers [ 97 ]. On the other hand, public–private partnerships are essential for promoting cooperation between NGOs, the business sector, and governments to pool resources and expertise to advance sustainable agriculture [ 98 ].

Promote regional integration; this involves promoting regional cooperation and trade agreements to enhance food security by reducing access to resources and markets [ 94 ]. To ensure all intended goals are achieved, an effective monitoring and evaluation system must assess the impact of agricultural development programs [ 96 ]. In addition, long-term planning and investment should be implemented by encouraging government institutions to commit to long-term planning and investment in agriculture to ensure sustainability and food security [ 98 ]. Sustainable agricultural development requires a multi-faceted approach, and the specific strategies adopted should be tailored to each country's unique circumstances and challenges. It is essential for East African governments, in partnership with international organizations and stakeholders, to work together to prioritize and implement these strategies to curb food insecurity and promote sustainable agricultural development on the continent.

3.2.3 Conflict resolution and peacebuilding

Conflict, violence, and fragility are acknowledged as obstacles to attaining universal food security in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Given the propensity of conflict to impede sustainable development, one of the objectives is to substantially diminish the prevalence of violence by collaborating with member states and communities to identify enduring resolutions to issues of insecurity and conflict. The 2030 Agenda considers the elimination of hunger and poverty (Sustainable Development Goals [SDGs] 1 and 2) as prerequisites for the establishment of peaceful and inclusive societies (SDG 16); the prevention of violence and conflict is considered indispensable to the attainment of each of the remaining SDGs.

Despite the frequent association between armed conflict and severe hunger, historical patterns indicate that hunger may be prevented and does not always ensue from war. To develop effective responses and treatments, a comprehensive understanding of the supposed correlation between conflict and food poverty is necessary. Despite the apparent correlation between conflict, severe food insecurity, and chronic hunger, the available data is limited and inconsistent, and the precise processes at play remain poorly understood. In contrast, hunger, encompassing various forms such as chronic malnutrition, famine, and general deprivation, is frequently regarded as a potential catalyst for conflict. However, the precise mechanisms underlying its differential applicability as a contributing factor or catalyst in different contexts remain obscure. The objective of the current investigation is to provide more insight into these pathways of causality.

4 A positive assets-based model of agricultural systems solution

The arrows in Fig.  2 illustrate the various ways in which human capital and social capital interact with each other. For example, people with high levels of human capital are more likely to have strong social networks, and people with strong social networks are more likely to have access to opportunities for economic and social advancement.

According to J. Pretty [ 99 ], the above figure is illustrating the role of a positive Assets-based model and social capital in the sustainable livelihood framework: modified from J. Pretty’s asset-based model of agricultural systems—flows and outcomes in sustainable systems

According to Fig.  2 , the following are some specific examples of the interactions between human capital and social capital:

Economic: People with high levels of human capital (such as education and skills) are more likely to get high-paying jobs. They are also more likely to start their businesses. Social networks can help people find jobs, learn about new business opportunities, and get access to capital.

Political: People with high levels of human capital are more likely to be politically engaged. They are more likely to vote, run for office, and participate in civic activities. Social networks can help people mobilize for political action and build coalitions.

Social: People with high levels of human capital are more likely to have strong social ties. They are also more likely to be involved in social organizations. Social networks can provide people with support, companionship, and a sense of belonging.

Cultural: People with high levels of human capital are more likely to be involved in cultural activities, such as attending museums, concerts, and plays. They are also more likely to volunteer their time to cultural organizations. Social networks can help people connect with others who share their cultural interests.

Overall, human capital and social capital are complementary resources that could improve people's involvement in sustainable agriculture and resolve conflicts. Investing in human capital can help people develop the skills and knowledge they need to succeed. Investing in social capital can help people build networks and relationships that can support their economic, political, social, and cultural well-being.

5 Conclusion and policy recommendation

This article has explored the complex relationship between food insecurity and the ripples challenges of climate change, economic crisis and conflict in East Africa, with a specific focus on the Horn of Africa. It has highlighted the devastating impact of climate-related stressors, such as erratic rainfall and extreme weather events, on agricultural production and food availability. This, coupled with pre-existing vulnerabilities, has exacerbated food insecurity in the region, leaving millions vulnerable to hunger and malnutrition. However, the article has also emphasized the resilience and potential of East African communities. By embracing innovative agricultural practices, strengthening social safety nets, and promoting regional cooperation contribute to achieving food security and ending hunger in the Horn of Africa.

Achieving zero hunger is not just a humanitarian imperative but also an economic and social necessity. Food insecurity stifles economic growth, hinders development, and weakens national security. Conversely, a food-secure region fosters economic prosperity, promotes social stability, and empowers communities to thrive. In the specific context of the Horn of Africa, achieving zero hunger holds particular significance. The region is home to some of the world's most vulnerable populations, and the consequences of inaction are severe. Ensuring food security for all is not only crucial for saving lives but also for building a stronger, more resilient future for the region.

Tackling food insecurity and climate change in the East Africa requires a multi-pronged approach that involves collective action from various stakeholders. Here are some key action points:

Investing in climate-smart agriculture: It is essential to promote the use of climate-resilient agricultural methods, such as drought-resistant crops and water conservation techniques, to maintain food security in response to changing climate conditions.

Strengthening social safety nets: Implementing safety nets like food assistance programmes and social protection systems can aid vulnerable communities in managing food insecurity and weather shocks.

Fostering regional cooperation: Collaboration between countries in the East Africa is crucial for sharing resources, knowledge, and best practices in tackling food insecurity and climate change.

Engaging international community: International donors and organizations have a vital role to play in providing financial and technical assistance to support regional efforts towards food security and climate resilience.

Empowering local communities: Actively engaging local communities in decision-making processes and ensuring their access to resources and knowledge are essential for building long-term solutions to food insecurity and climate change.

The time for action is now. By working together and implementing concrete solutions, we can create a future where food insecurity is a relic of the past, and East Africa stands tall as a region where all its people have access to safe, nutritious, and sustainable food. Let us rise to the challenge and make zero hunger a reality in the Horn of Africa.

Data availability

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Abdullahi, A.M., Kalengyo, R.B. & Warsame, A.A. The unmet demand of food security in East Africa: review of the triple challenges of climate change, economic crises, and conflicts. Discov Sustain 5 , 244 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-024-00381-5

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