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Networking Basic Concepts and Fundamentals Explained

This tutorial explains the basic concepts of computer networking. Learn the essential networking topics in detail with examples.

Computer networking is one of the most complex subjects. Describing all of its topics requires an encyclopedia. Learning and understanding all these topics at the primary stage are neither required nor recommended. It is just like learning the vocabulary from the dictionary. Unless you know what you need to know, you will never know what you want to know. In this tutorial, I will discuss two essential topics that you should learn at the elementary level. Understanding these topics will set the foundation for the rest of your studies.

Essential components of the computer network

When learning computer networking, this should be your first topic.

A computer network is made up of four essential components. These components are End devices, Media, Protocols, and Networking devices. Let's discuss these components in detail.

End devices

An end device is a device that sends or receives the data in the network. It can be a PC, Laptop, Smartphone, or any other device that is capable of sending and receiving data and is connected with the network. To build a network, at least two end devices are required.

Broadly end devices are categorized into two types; server end device and client end device. The server end device is the device that provides data or service. The client end device is the device that receives the offered data or service from the server end device.

The media provides connectivity between the end devices. Unless end devices are connected through media, they cannot exchange the data or service. Mainly there are two types of media; Wireless media and wired media.

In wireless media, radio signals are used to transfer the data between end devices, whereas, in wired media, the data is transferred through cables.

Both media types are further classified into several subtypes. Subtypes are categorized based on various factors such as length, data transfer speed, used metal, frequency band, etc. Subtypes are defined as the media standards. Two common media standards are the Ethernet and the IEEE802.11 or Wi-Fi standards.

The Ethernet defines the standards for the wired media. The IEEE802.11 defines the standards for wireless media.

Protocols enable communication between two or more end devices. A protocol is a set of predefined rules that specifies standards for a particular stage or all stages of the communication.

Following are some common functions performed by the protocols.

• Initializing and terminating the communication process
• Performing encryption and compression before sending the data
• Packing data in such a format that it can travel in the network
• Providing logical addressing
• Performing error correction
• Performing authentication

Two popular networking models: the OSI Reference Model and the TCP/IP Model describe the functionalities of the most common protocols. Both models divide the entire communication process into logical layers. Further, they explain how the protocols work in each layer to enable the communication process.

Networking device

A networking device works between the end devices. It controls and forwards the flow of data. Based on the functionalities, a networking device can be categorized into three types; forwarding device, connecting device, and securing device.

A forwarding device forwards the data. This device usually has multiple ports which are used to connect more than two end devices in a single network. Hub, bridge, and Ethernet switch provide this functionality.

A connecting device connects two or more different types of media and protocols. If two end devices are located in different logical networks or connected through the different types of media, they need a connecting device to exchange the data. Router and Multilayer switch provides this functionality.

A securing device secures the data from unauthorized access. When a data packet arrives in it, based on pre-defined rules it performs security checks and takes the forwarding decision. Common devices which provide this functionality are the Firewall and NAT.

Classification of the computer network

After learning the essential components of the network, this should be your next topic. Computer networks are mainly categorized based on the geographical location, access types, and relationship between end devices.

Based on the geographical location

Based on the geographical location, a network can be classified into three types: LAN, MAN, and WAN. A network that is geographically spread over a small, medium, and large area are respectively known as the LAN, MAN, and WAN network.

Based on the access type

Based on allowing users to access network resources, the network is classified into three types; Intranet, Extranet, and the Internet. An Intranet is a private network. In this network, external users are not allowed to access the network resources. An Extranet is also a private network. But in this network, after proper authorization, external users are allowed to access a small portion of the network. The Internet is the public network. Any user can connect with this network.

Based on the relationship between the end devices

Based on how the end devices access each other, the network is categorized into two types; peer-to-peer network and clients/server network. In peer to peer network, all end devices have equal rights. In the clients/server network, the server decides which client will have what rights.

That’s all for this tutorial. If you like this tutorial, please don’t forget to share it through your favorite social networking sites.

By ComputerNetworkingNotes Updated on 2018-01-19

ComputerNetworkingNotes Networking Tutorials Networking Basic Concepts and Fundamentals Explained

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• Computer Network Practice Problems

A computer network is a collection of various computing machines that are able to share each other’s resources in a mannerly fashion . Computer network is at the centre of all the modern processes and computational exercises. A computer network makes the world wide web possible. It is through a computer network that all the technological advances are made and the concept of forming and maintaining a computer network is basic to almost all modern professions. Here we have a section that has most interesting questions testing your knowledge about computer networks. Let us see more!

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Networking Practice Questions

Networking Practice Questions has questions based on the concepts of Computer Networks, The OSI Model , Computer and Network Security, Internet and the World Wide Web . Here we will see many previous years questions which will not only help you get a total recap of what you have learned but also let you understand the type of challenges and the level of difficulty that you must expect.

Q1: Hub is associated with ……. network.    [S B I Clerk 2011]

A) Bus             B) Ring                     C) Star                     D) Mesh                       E) All of the above

Q2: Multiplexing involves ……. path and …………….. channel.              [S B I Clerk, 2011]

A) one, one                B) one, multiple                   C) multiple, one                   D) multiple, multiple               E) None of the above

Q3: The advantage of L A N is   [S B I Clerk, 2012]

A) sharing peripherals                      B) backing up your data                  C) saving all your data                  D) accessing the web                E) automatic printing of data

Q4: Which type of network would use phone lines ?              [S B I Clerk 2012]

A) W A N                     B) L A N                              C) W W A N                      D) Wireless                    E) None of the above

Q5: Servers are those computers which provide resources to other computers connected by:    [S B I Clerk 2009]

A) network                  B) backup system                        C) server                D) peripheral                     E) modem

Q6: A combination of hardware and software that allows communication and electronic transfer of information between computers is a:               [S B I Clerk 2012]

A) network                   B) backup system                     C) server               D) peripheral                E) modem

Q7: What type of resource is most likely to be a shared common resource in a computer network?         [Allahbad Bank Clerk, 2010]

A) Printers                   B) Speakers               C) Floppy Disk Drives                         D) Keyboards                    E) None of the above

Q8: A device that connects to a network without the use of cables is said to be:     [I B P S Clerk, 2012]

A) distributed             B) cabled                  C) centralized D) open source                  E) wireless

Find Your Answers Here

Q1: C), Q2: B), Q3: A), Q4: A), Q5: A), Q6: A), Q7: A), Q8: E)

Q1: ……… is the most important/ powerful computer in a typical network.       [S B I P. O. 2013]

A)   Network station                B) Network Client                  C)  Desktop                  D)Network server                     E) Network switch

Q2: P2P is a …….. application architecture.      [I B P S Clerk 2012]

A) client/ server                  B) distributed                  C) centralised                        D) 1 – tier               E) None of the above

Q3: Which of the following represents the fastest data transmission speed?         [S B I Clerk, 2012]

A) Bandwidth                      B) bps                C) gbps                      D) kbps                  E) mbps

Q4: In O S I network architecture, the routing is performed by:          [I B P S Clerk 2012]

A) network layer                         B) data link layer                      C) transport layer                  D) session layer                     E) None of the above

Q5: Which of the following is considered a broadband communication channel?     [S B I P. O. 2010]

A) Coaxial cable                B) Fiber optics cable          C) Microwave circuits            D) All of these            E) None of the above

Q6: How many bits are there in the ethernet address?               [S B I clerk 2011]

A) 64 bits                     B) 48 bits                   C) 32 bits                  D) 16 bits                  E) None of these

Q7: How many layers are in the T C P/ I P model?     [S B I Clerk 2011]

A) 4 layers                B) 5 layers                       C) 6 layers                    D) 7 layers                   E) None of these

Q8: Ethernet, token ring and token bus are types of?     [S B I Associates 2012]

A) W A N                   B) L A N                     C) Communication channels              D) Physical medium               E) None of the above

Q9: Which of the following items is not used in Local Area Networks (L A Ns)?   [S S C  C G L 2012]

A) Interfaced card                        B) Cable                        C) Computer                   D) Modem

Q10: Which is the name of the network topology in which there are bidirectional links between each possible node?       [S S C     C G L 2012]

A) Ring                B) Start                C) Tree                  D) Mesh

Q11: An alternate name for the completely interconnected network topology is:            [S S C           C G L    2012]

A) mesh              B) star                  C) tree                  D) ring

Find Your Answer Here

Q1: D), Q2: A), Q3: C), Q4: A), Q5: D), Q6: B), Q7: B), Q8: B), Q9: D), Q10: D), Q11: A)

Q1: The secret code that gives you access to some program is?          [Punjab And Sindh Bank Clerk, 2010]

A) clue               B) cue                    C) password            D) help                E) None of the above

Q2: Sending an E-mail is similar to?    [S B I Clerk 2011]

A) writing a letter                  B) drawing a picture                    C) talking on the phone                    D) sending a package    E) None of the above

Q3: Which of the following is the communication protocol that sets the standard used by every computer that accesses web-based information?            [S B I P. O. 2010]

A) X M L                         B) D M L                     C) H T T P                     D) H T M L                    E) None of the above

Q4: Which of the following is required to create an H T M L document?    [I B P S Clerk, 2011]

A) Browser                    B) Internet                          C) Text Editor                    D) Search engine                      E) None of the above

Q5: If you receive an E-mail from someone you don’t know what should you do?             [S B I Clerk, 2008]

A) Forward it to the police immediately.

B) Delete it without opening it.

C) Open it and respond to them saying that you don’t know them.

D) Reply and ask them for their personal information.

E) Reply and tell them you want to keep in touch with them.

Q1: C), Q2: A), Q3: C), Q4: C), Q5: B)

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Important Computer Network Assignment Topics

• Emily Scott

A computer network is a gathering of interconnected computers. A wide assortment of qualities might order networks.

Computer networking development includes a broad scope of areas, some of which cover computer-based instruction. For instance, this computer-based training development presently advocates vast network connections across schools, libraries, craftsmanship galleries, and examination focuses. The computer networking CM pushes this vision further, supporting all institutional areas meshing together into one big automated web. Students pursuing their studies in this particular academic sphere are expected to perform well in computer network assignment topics to score good grades.

Types of Computer Networks

Personal area network (pan).

The most minor and essential network, a PAN, comprises a remote modem, a computer or two, telephones, printers, tablets, and so forth, and spins around one individual in one structure. These networks are regularly found in little workplaces or habitations and overseen by one individual or association from a solitary gadget.

Local Area Network (LAN)

We're confident you've known about these networks previously – LANs are the most habitually examined networks, one of the most widely recognized, most unique, and perhaps the easiest. LANs associate gatherings of computers and low-voltage gadgets across short separations (inside a structure or between a group of a few designs in closeness to one another) to share data and assets. Undertakings regularly oversee and look after LANs.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a more extensive geographic area by interconnecting an alternate LAN to frame a giant web.

Government organizations use MAN to interface with the residents and private ventures. Within such concepts, a large number of students find it extremely difficult. Hence, they require professional help with computer network assignment topics.

In MAN, different LANs are associated with one another through a phone trade line. It has a higher reach than the Local Area Network(LAN). Airline Reservation utilizes this network. It is used in a school inside a city.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Somewhat more mind-boggling than a LAN, a WAN associates computers together across longer actual separations. It permits computers and low-voltage gadgets to be distantly associated with one another, more than one colossal network to impart when separated.

Also Read: Explained: Artificial Neural Network

Significant Computer Network Assignment Topics

Star topology.

Star topology is a network plan where a focal hub expands a link (or remote) to every computer on the web. On a star network, computers are associated autonomously with the focal point of the network.

A star topology permits direct administration of the whole network from one spot. Since every hub has its association, the deficiency of one corner won't break the entire thing. On the off chance that you have to add a gadget to the network, it connects right without additional exertion.

The main issue is that there is a solitary purpose of disappointment in the star network. The entire thing goes down if there's just a single center point. In any case, networking experts will regularly have fizzle over workers – reinforcements – that keep things running while they fix the principal worker.

Intranet Preferences

Correspondence: It gives a modest and straightforward post. A worker of the association can speak with another representative through email or visit.

Efficient: Information on the intranet is partaken continuously, so the time has come sparing.

Coordinated effort: Collaboration is one of the main focal points of the intranet. The data is conveyed among the association representatives and must be gotten to by the approved client.

Savvy: People can see the information and archives by utilizing the program and appropriating the copy duplicates over the intranet. It prompts a decrease in expenses.

How is Computer Networking Advancing?

Current networks convey more than availability. Associations are leaving on changing themselves carefully. Their webs are essential to this change and their prosperity. Network regulators are critical to scaling and making sure about networks. Regulators mechanize networking capacities by interpreting business expectations to gadget arrangements, and they screen gadgets ceaselessly to help guarantee execution and security. Regulators improve tasks and assist associations with reacting to changing business necessities. Other crucial computer network assignment topics need help . Take a look

Algorithms and complexity

Architecture and organization

Computational science

Graphics and visual computing

Human-computer interaction

Information management

Intelligent systems

Networking and communication

Operating systems

Parallel and distributed computing

Platform-based development

Programming languages

Security and information assurance

Software engineering

Social and professional issues

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Students struggling with their computer network assignments can simply get professional help from experts . The subject matter experts can provide them with the best assistance possible on computer network assignment topics, and that too within their budget.

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A computer network comprises two or more computers that are connected—either by cables (wired) or wifi (wireless)—with the purpose of transmitting, exchanging, or sharing data and resources.

You build a computer network by using hardware (for example, routers, switches, access points, and cables) and software (for example, operating systems or business applications).

Geographic location often defines a computer network. For example, a LAN (local area network) connects computers in a defined physical space, like an office building, whereas a WAN (wide area network) can connect computers across continents. The internet is the largest example of a WAN, connecting billions of computers worldwide.

You can further define a computer network by the protocols it uses to communicate, the physical arrangement of its components, how it controls traffic, and its purpose.

Computer networks enable communication for every business, entertainment, and research purpose. The internet, online search, email, audio and video sharing, online commerce, live-streaming, and social networks all exist because of computer networks.

Read how desktop as a service (DaaS) enables enterprises to achieve the same level of performance and security as deploying the applications on premises.

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As networking needs evolved, so did the computer network types that serve those needs. Here are the most common and widely used computer network types:

LAN (local area network):  A LAN connects computers over a relatively short distance, allowing them to share data, files, and resources. For example, a LAN may connect all the computers in an office building, school, or hospital. Typically, LANs are privately owned and managed.  

WLAN (wireless local area network):  A WLAN is just like a LAN but connections between devices on the network are made wirelessly.  

WAN (wide area network):  As the name implies, a WAN connects computers over a wide area, such as from region to region or even continent to continent. The internet is the largest WAN, connecting billions of computers worldwide. You will typically see collective or distributed ownership models for WAN management.  

MAN (metropolitan area network):  MANs are typically larger than LANs but smaller than WANs. Cities and government entities typically own and manage MANs.  

PAN (personal area network):  A PAN serves one person. For example, if you have an iPhone and a Mac, it’s likely you’ve set up a PAN that shares and syncs content—text messages, emails, photos, and more—across both devices.  

SAN (storage area network):  A SAN is a specialized network that provides access to block-level storage—shared network or cloud storage. To the user, it looks, and works like a storage drive that’s physically attached to a computer. (For more information on how a SAN works with block storage, see Block Storage: A Complete Guide ).  

CAN (campus area network):  A CAN is also known as a corporate area network. A CAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. CANs serve sites such as colleges, universities, and business campuses.  

VPN (virtual private network): A VPN is a secure, point-to-point connection between two network end points (see ‘nodes’ below). A VPN establishes an encrypted channel that keeps a user’s identity and access credentials, as well as any data transferred, inaccessible to hackers.

The following are some common terms to know when discussing computer networking:

IP address : An IP address is a unique number assigned to every device connected to a network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. Each IP address identifies the device’s host network and the location of the device on the host network. When one device sends data to another, the data includes a ‘header’ that includes the IP address of the sending device and the IP address of the destination device.  

Nodes : A node is a connection point inside a network that can receive, send, create, or store data. Each node requires you to provide some form of identification to receive access, like an IP address. A few examples of nodes include computers, printers, modems, bridges, and switches. A node is essentially any network device that can recognize, process, and transmit information to any other network node.  

Routers : A router is a physical or virtual device that sends information that is contained in data packets between networks. Routers analyze data within the packets to determine the best way for the information to reach its ultimate destination. Routers forward data packets until they reach their destination node.  

Switches : A switch is a device that connects other devices and manages node-to-node communication within a network, ensuring that data packets reach their ultimate destination. While a router sends information between networks, a switch sends information between nodes in a single network. When discussing computer networks, ‘switching’ refers to how data is transferred between devices in a network. The three main types of switching are as follows:

Circuit switching , which establishes a dedicated communication path between nodes in a network. This dedicated path assures the full bandwidth is available during the transmission, meaning that no other traffic can travel along that path.  

Packet switching involves breaking down data into independent components that are called packets, which because of their small size, make fewer demands on the network. The packets travel through the network to their end destination.  

Message switching sends a message in its entirety from the source node, traveling from switch to switch until it reaches its destination node.  

Ports : A port identifies a specific connection between network devices. Each port is identified by a number. If you think of an IP address as comparable to the address of a hotel, then ports are the suites or room numbers within that hotel. Computers use port numbers to determine which application, service, or process should receive specific messages.  

Network cable types : The most common network cable types are Ethernet twisted pair, coaxial, and fiber optic. The choice of cable type depends on the size of the network, the arrangement of network elements, and the physical distance between devices.

The wired or wireless connection of two or more computers for the purpose of sharing data and resources form a computer network. Today, nearly every digital device belongs to a computer network.

In an office setting, you and your colleagues may share access to a printer or to a group messaging system. The computing network that allows this is likely a LAN or local area network that permits your department to share resources.

A city government might manage a city-wide network of surveillance cameras that monitor traffic flow and incidents. This network would be part of a MAN or metropolitan area network that allows city emergency personnel to respond to traffic accidents, advise drivers of alternate travel routes. And even send traffic tickets to drivers who run red lights.

The Weather Company worked to create a peer-to-peer mesh network that allows mobile devices to communicate directly with other mobile devices without requiring wifi or cellular connectivity. The Mesh Network Alerts  project allows the delivery of life-saving weather information to billions of people, even without an internet connection.

The internet is actually a network of networks that connects billions of digital devices worldwide. Standard protocols allow communication between these devices. Those protocols include the hypertext transfer protocol (the ‘http’ in front of all website addresses). Internet protocols (or IP addresses) are the unique identifying numbers that are required of every device that accesses the internet. IP addresses are comparable to your mailing address, providing unique location information so that information can be delivered correctly.

Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and Network Service Providers (NSPs) provide the infrastructure that allows the transmission of packets of data or information over the internet. Every bit of information that is sent over the internet doesn’t go to every device connected to the internet. It’s the combination of protocols and infrastructure that tells information exactly where to go.

Computer networks connect nodes like computers, routers, and switches by using cables, fiber optics, or wireless signals. These connections allow devices in a network to communicate and share information and resources.

Networks follow protocols, which define how communications are sent and received. These protocols allow devices to communicate. Each device on a network uses an Internet Protocol or IP address, a string of numbers that uniquely identifies a device and allows other devices to recognize it. 

Routers are virtual or physical devices that facilitate communications between different networks. Routers analyze information to determine the best way for data to reach its ultimate destination. Switches connect devices and manage node-to-node communication inside a network, ensuring that bundles of information traveling across the network reach their ultimate destination.

Computer network architecture defines the physical and logical framework of a computer network. It outlines how computers are organized in the network and what tasks are assigned to those computers. Network architecture components include hardware, software, transmission media (wired or wireless), network topology, and communications protocols.

Main types of network architecture

There are two types of network architecture:  peer-to-peer (P2P) and client/server . In P2P architecture, two or more computers are connected as “peers,” meaning that they have equal power and privileges on the network. A P2P network does not require a central server for coordination. Instead, each computer on the network acts as both a client (a computer that needs to access a service) and a server (a computer that serves the needs of the client accessing a service). Each peer makes some of its resources available to the network, sharing storage, memory, bandwidth, and processing power.

In a client/server network, a central server or group of servers manage resources and deliver services to client devices in the network. The clients in the network communicate with other clients through the server. Unlike the P2P model, clients in a client/server architecture don’t share their resources. This architecture type is sometimes called a tiered model because it's designed with multiple levels or tiers.

Network topology

Network topology refers to how the nodes and links in a network are arranged. A network node is a device that can send, receive, store, or forward data. A network link connects nodes and may be either cabled or wireless links.

Understanding topology types provides the basis for building a successful network. There are several topologies but the most common are bus, ring, star, and mesh:

A bus network topology is when every network node is directly connected to a main cable.  

In a ring topology , nodes are connected in a loop, so each device has exactly two neighbors. Adjacent pairs are connected directly; nonadjacent pairs are connected indirectly through multiple nodes.  

In a star network topology , all nodes are connected to a single, central hub and each node is indirectly connected through that hub.  

A mesh topology is defined by overlapping connections between nodes. You can create a full mesh topology, where every node in the network is connected to every other node. You can also create partial mesh topology in which only some nodes are connected to each other and some are connected to the nodes with which they exchange the most data. Full mesh topology can be expensive and time-consuming to run, which is why it's often reserved for networks that require high redundancy. Partial mesh provides less redundancy but is more cost-effective and simpler to run.

Computer network security protects the integrity of information that is contained by a network and controls who access that information. Network security policies balance the need to provide service to users with the need to control access to information.

There are many entry points to a network. These entry points include the hardware and software that comprise the network itself as well as the devices used to access the network, like computers, smartphones, and tablets. Because of these entry points, network security requires using several defense methods. Defenses may include firewalls—devices that monitor network traffic and prevent access to parts of the network based on security rules.

Processes for authenticating users with user IDs and passwords provide another layer of security. Security includes isolating network data so that proprietary or personal information is harder to access than less critical information. Other network security measures include ensuring hardware and software updates and patches are performed regularly. This educates network users about their role in security processes, and staying aware of external threats executed by hackers and other malicious actors. Network threats constantly evolve, which makes network security a never-ending process.

The use of public cloud also requires updates to security procedures to ensure continued safety and access. A secure cloud demands a secure underlying network. 

Read about the top five considerations  for securing the public cloud.

As noted above, a mesh network is a topology type in which the nodes of a computer network connect to as many other nodes as possible. In this topology, nodes cooperate to efficiently route data to its destination. This topology provides greater fault tolerance because if one node fails, there are many other nodes that can transmit data. Mesh networks self-configure and self-organize, searching for the fastest, most reliable path on which to send information.

Type of mesh networks:

There are two types of mesh networks—full mesh and partial mesh.

• In a full mesh topology , every network node connects to every other network node, providing the highest level of fault tolerance. However, it costs more to run. In a partial mesh topology, only some nodes connect, typically those that exchange data most frequently.
• A wireless mesh network may consist of tens to hundreds of nodes. This type of network connects to users over access points spread across a large area.

Load balancers efficiently distribute tasks, workloads, and network traffic across available servers. Think of load balancers like air traffic control at an airport. The load balancer observes all traffic coming into a network and directs it toward the router or server that is best equipped to manage it. The objectives of load balancing are to avoid resource overload, optimize available resources, improve response times, and maximize throughput.

For a complete overview of load balancers, see Load Balancing: A Complete Guide .

A content delivery network (CDN) is a distributed server network that delivers temporarily stored, or cached, copies of website content to users based on the user’s geographic location. A CDN stores this content in distributed locations and serves it to users as a way to reduce the distance between your website visitors and your website server. Having cached content closer to your end users allows you to serve content faster and helps websites better reach a global audience. CDNs protect against traffic surges, reduce latency, decrease bandwidth consumption, accelerate load times. And lessen the impact of hacks and attacks by introducing a layer between the end user and your website infrastructure.

Live-streaming media, on-demand media, gaming companies, application creators, e-commerce sites—as digital consumption increases, more content owners turn to CDNs to better serve content consumers.

Avoid network traffic jams and decrease latency by keeping your data closer to your users with Akamai’s content delivery network on IBM Cloud®.

IBM Cloud® Load Balancers enable you to balance traffic among servers to improve uptime and performance.

Gain more control of your cloud infrastructure and protect your servers and network.

IBM Hybrid Cloud Mesh offers simple, secure, and predictable application-centric connectivity.

Learn how load balancing optimizes website and application performance.

An introduction to content delivery networks and how they improve customer satisfaction by optimizing website and mobile app performance.

Answers to pressing questions from IT architects on public cloud security.

IBM NS1 Connect provides fast, secure connections to users anywhere in the world with premium DNS and advanced, customizable traffic steering. NS1 Connect’s always-on, API-first architecture enables your IT teams to more efficiently monitor networks, deploy changes and conduct routine maintenance.

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What is Computer Networking?

Computer networking is like having a group of friends who all have phones and can call or text each other. In computer networking, instead of phones, we have computers and instead of phone lines, we use cables, Wi-Fi, or other methods to connect them. When computers are connected to a network, they can share information and resources, like files, printers, and internet connections. This allows them to communicate with each other quickly and easily, just like friends talking on their phones.

A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers, networking hardware, personal computers, and other specialized or general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a computer network. Hostnames and network addresses are used to identify them. In this article, we are going to discuss computer networking in detail.

Computer Networking

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different devices allows users to communicate more easily. A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A network connection can be established using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools in any network.

What Do Computer Networks Do?

Computer Networks are one of the important aspects of Computer Science. In the early days, it is used for data transmission on telephone lines and had a very limited use, but nowadays, it is used in a variety of places.

Computer Networks help in providing better connectivity that helps nowadays. Modern computer networks have the following functionality:

• Computer Networks help in operating virtually
• Computer Networks integrate on a large scale
• Computer Networks respond very quickly in case of conditions change
• Computer Networks help in providing data security

Key Components of a Computer Network

In simple terms, a computer network is made up of two main parts: devices (called nodes) and connections (called links). The links connect the devices to each other. The rules for how these connections send information are called communication protocols. The starting and ending points of these communications are often called ports .

Key Components of Computer Network

1. Network Devices

Basic hardware interconnecting network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers, are used in all networks. In addition, a mechanism for connecting these building parts is necessary, which is usually galvanic cable and optical cable are less popular (“optical fiber”)The following are the network devices :

• NIC (Network Interface Card): A network card, often known as a network adapter or NIC (network interface card), is computer hardware that enables computers to communicate via a network. It offers physical access to networking media and, in many cases, MAC addresses serve as a low-level addressing scheme. Each network interface card has a distinct identifier. This is stored on a chip that is attached to the card.
• Repeater: A repeater is an electrical device that receives a signal, cleans it of unwanted noise, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level or to the opposite side of an obstruction, allowing the signal to travel greater distances without degradation. In the majority of twisted pair Ethernet networks, Repeaters are necessary for cable lengths longer than 100 meters in some systems. Repeaters are based on physics.
• Hub: A hub is a device that joins together many twisted pairs or fiber optic Ethernet devices to give the illusion of a formation of a single network segment. The device can be visualized as a multiport repeater. A network hub is a relatively simple broadcast device. Any packet entering any port is regenerated and broadcast out on all other ports, and hubs do not control any of the traffic that passes through them. Packet collisions occur as a result of every packet being sent out through all other ports, substantially impeding the smooth flow of communication.
• Bridges: Bridges broadcast data to all the ports but not to the one that received the transmission. Bridges, on the other hand, learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports rather than copying messages to all ports as hubs do. Once a port and an address are associated, the bridge will only transport traffic from that address to that port.
• Switches: A switch differs from a hub in that it only forwards frames to the ports that are participating in the communication, rather than all of the ports that are connected. The collision domain is broken by a switch, yet the switch depicts itself as a broadcast domain. Frame-forwarding decisions are made by switches based on MAC addresses.
• Routers: Routers are networking devices that use headers and forwarding tables to find the optimal way to forward data packets between networks. A router is a computer networking device that links two or more computer networks and selectively exchanges data packets between them. A router can use address information in each data packet to determine if the source and destination are on the same network or if the data packet has to be transported between networks. When numerous routers are deployed in a wide collection of interconnected networks, the routers share target system addresses so that each router can develop a table displaying the preferred pathways between any two systems on the associated networks.
• Gateways: To provide system compatibility, a gateway may contain devices such as protocol translators, impedance-matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal translators. It also necessitates the development of administrative procedures that are acceptable to both networks. By completing the necessary protocol conversions, a protocol translation/mapping gateway joins networks that use distinct network protocol technologies.

Links are the ways information travels between devices, and they can be of two types:

• Wired: Communication done in a wired medium . Copper wire, twisted pair, or fiber optic cables are all options. A wired network employs wires to link devices to the Internet or another network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.
• Wireless: Wireless means without wire, media that is made up of electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors will be present on all wireless devices. For data or voice communication, a wireless network uses radio frequency waves rather than wires.

3. Communication Protocols

A communication protocol is a set of rules that all devices follow when they share information. Some common protocols are TCP/IP, IEEE 802, Ethernet, wireless LAN, and cellular standards. TCP/IP is a model that organizes how communication works in modern networks. It has four functional layers for these communication links:

• Network Access Layer : This layer controls how data is physically transferred, including how hardware sends data through wires or fibers.
• Internet Layer : This layer packages data into understandable packets and ensures it can be sent and received.
• Transport Layer : This layer keeps the communication between devices steady and reliable.
• Application Layer : This layer allows high-level applications to access the network to start data transfer.

Most of the modern internet structure is based on the TCP/IP model, although the similar seven-layer OSI model still has a strong influence.

IEEE 802 is a group of standards for local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan area networks (MAN). The most well-known member of the IEEE 802 family is wireless LAN, commonly known as WLAN or Wi-Fi.

4. Network Defense

While nodes, links, and protocols are the building blocks of a network, a modern network also needs strong defenses. Security is crucial because huge amounts of data are constantly being created, moved, and processed. Some examples of network defense tools are firewalls, intrusion detection systems ( IDS ), intrusion prevention systems ( IPS ), network access control ( NAC ), content filters, proxy servers, anti-DDoS devices, and load balancers.

How Does a Computer Network Work?

Computer Networks simply work using nodes and links. Data communication equipment is simply termed as Nodes. For example, Modems , Hubs, Switches, etc. whereas links in Computer networks can be referred to as a connection between two nodes. We have several types of links like cable wires, optical fibers , etc. 

Whenever a Computer Network is working, nodes have the work of sending and receiving data via the links. Computer Network provides some set of protocols that help in following the rules and protocols.

Criteria of a Good Network

• Performance: It can be measured in many ways, including transmit time and response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of the network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of medium & Hardware.
• Reliability: In addition to accuracy is measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from failure, and the network’s robustness in catastrophe. 
• Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data loss.  

Goals of Computer Networking

• Programs do not have to execute on a single system because of resource and load sharing
• Reduced costs – Multiple machines can share printers, tape drives, and other peripherals
• Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place
• Scalability (it’s simple to add more processors or computers)
• Communication and mail (people living apart can work together)
• Information Access (remote information access, access to the internet, e-mail, video conferencing, and online shopping)
• Entertainment that is interactive (online games, videos, etc.)
• Social Networking

Types of Computer Networks

Division based on area covered.

• Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that covers an area of around 10 kilometers. For example, a college network or an office network. Depending upon the needs of the organization, a LAN can be a single office, building, or Campus. We can have two PCs and one printer in-home office or it can extend throughout the company and include audio and video devices. Each host in LAN has an identifier, an address that defines hosts in LAN. A packet sent by the host to another host carries both the source host’s and the destination host’s address.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN refers to a network that covers an entire city. For example: consider the cable television network.
• Point To Point : Connects two connecting devices through transmission media. 
• Switched: A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.

Based on Types of Communication 

• Point To Point networks: Point-to-Point networking is a type of data networking that establishes a direct link between two networking nodes. A direct link between two devices, such as a computer and a printer, is known as a point-to-point connection.
• Multipoint : is the one in which more than two specific devices share links. In the multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. 
• Broadcast networks: In broadcast networks , a signal method in which numerous parties can hear a single sender. Radio stations are an excellent illustration of the “Broadcast Network” in everyday life. The radio station is a sender of data/signal in this scenario, and data is only intended to travel in one direction. Away from the radio transmission tower, to be precise.

Based on the Type of Architecture 

• P2P Networks: Computers with similar capabilities and configurations are referred to as peers. The “peers” in a peer-to-peer network are computer systems that are connected to each other over the Internet. Without the use of a central server, files can be shared directly between systems on the network.
• Client-Server Networks: Each computer or process on the network is either a client or a server in a client-server architecture (client/server). The client asks for services from the server, which the server provides. Servers are high-performance computers or processes that manage disc drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic (network servers)
• Hybrid Networks: The hybrid model uses a combination of client-server and peer-to-peer architecture. Eg: Torrent.

Types of Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is of two types. These types are mentioned below.

• Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is basically the architecture where the clients and the server are connected as two clients can communicate with each other and the devices present work as servers in the network.
• Peer-to-Peer Architecture: Peer-to-Peer Architecture , computers are connected to each other and each computer is equally capable of working as there is no central server here. Each device present here can be used as a client or server.

Types of Enterprise Computer Networks

There are three main types of Enterprise Computer Networks which are mentioned below.

• Local Area Network (LAN): Local Area Networks are small-scale networks used in small companies or as test networks. It has a limited size.
• Wide Area Networks (WAN): Wide Area Networks are networks that are used for a larger area than local area networks and are used for long-distance communication.
• Service Provider Networks: Service Provider Networks are the networks that help in wireless communication, high-speed internet access, etc.

Key Objectives of Creating and Deploying a Computer Network

No industry—whether it’s education, retail, finance, tech, government, or healthcare—can function without well-designed computer networks. The larger the organization, the more complex the network becomes. Before starting the challenging job of creating and setting up a computer network, here are some key objectives to consider.

1. Resource Sharing

Today’s enterprises are spread across the globe, with critical assets being shared across departments, geographies, and time zones. Clients are no more bound by location. A network allows data and hardware to be accessible to every pertinent user. This also helps with interdepartmental data processing. For example, the marketing team analyzes customer data and product development cycles to enable executive decisions at the top level.

2. Resource Availability & Reliability

A network ensures that resources are not stuck in isolated areas and can be accessed from multiple locations. High reliability comes from having various sources of supply. Important resources are backed up across multiple machines, so they remain accessible even if there are hardware problems.

3. Performance Management

As a company grows, its workload increases. Adding one or more processors to the network boosts the overall performance of the system and allows it to handle this growth. Storing data in well-designed databases can significantly speed up searching and retrieving information.

4.Cost Savings

Big mainframe computers are costly, so it’s smarter to add processors strategically throughout the system. This boosts performance and saves money. Networks let employees access information quickly, saving operational time and costs. Centralized network administration means fewer investments are needed for IT support .

5. Increased Storage Capacity

Network-attached storage devices are great for employees who handle lots of data. For instance, the data science team doesn’t each need their own data storage for the large number of records they process. Centralized repositories are more efficient. As businesses deal with record amounts of customer data, the ability to expand storage capacity is crucial .

6. Streamlined Collaboration & Communication

Networks greatly influence how companies operate daily. Employees can share files, see each other’s work, sync calendars, and exchange ideas more efficiently. Internal messaging systems like Slack facilitate easy flow of information and conversations within modern enterprises. However, emails remain the formal mode of communication with clients, partners, and vendors.

7. Reduction of Errors

Networks decrease errors by ensuring everyone gets information from one source, even if they’re in different places. Backed-up data ensures consistency and continuity. Standard versions of customer and employee manuals can be easily accessed by many people without much trouble .

8. Secured Remote Access

Computer networks offer flexibility, which is crucial during uncertain times like now when natural disasters and pandemics are affecting the world. A secure network guarantees that users can access and work on sensitive data safely, even when they’re not at the company’s location. Mobile devices registered to the network can also provide multiple layers of authentication, ensuring that unauthorized users can’t access the system.

What is Network Topology?

The structure of the network and how each component is connected to the others are defined by the network topology. Different types of network topology are mentioned below:

Bus Topology

Ring Topology

Star Topology

Mesh Topology

Tree Topology

Every computer and network device is connected to a single cable in a bus topology network. Linear Bus topology is defined as having exactly two terminals.

• Installation is simple
• Compared to mesh, star, and tree topologies, the bus utilizes less cabling

Disadvantages

• Difficulty in reconfiguring and isolating faults
• A bus cable malfunction or break interrupts all communication

For more, you can refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology.

The topology is named ring topology because one computer is connected to another, with the final one being connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction. Each ring incorporates a repeater. 

• Data transmission is relatively straightforward because packets only move in one direction
• There is no requirement for a central controller to manage communication between nodes
• Easy installation & Reconfiguration
• Simplified Faulty connections
• In a Unidirectional Ring, a data packet must traverse through all nodes
• All computers must be turned on in order for them to connect with one another

For more, you can refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Ring Topology.

Each device in a star topology has a dedicated point-to-point link to a central controller, which is commonly referred to as the HUB. There is no direct connection between the devices. Traffic between the devices is not allowed in this topology. As an exchange, the controller is used.

• When attaching or disconnecting devices, there are no network interruptions
• It’s simple to set up and configure
• Identifying and isolating faults is simple
• Less Expensive than mesh 
• Easy to install & configure
• Nodes attached to the hub, switch, or concentrator is failed if they fail
• Because of the expense of the hubs, it is more expensive than linear bus topologies
• More cable is required compared to a bus or ring 
• Too much dependency on Hub

For more, you can refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Star Topology .

Example: Used in high-speed LANs

Every device in a mesh topology has dedicated point-to-point connectivity to every other device. The term “dedicated” refers to the fact that the link exclusively transports data between the two devices it links. To connect n devices, a fully connected mesh network contains n *(n-1)/2 physical channels.

• Data can be sent from multiple devices at the same time. This topology can handle a lot of traffic.
• Even if one of the connections fails, a backup is always available. As a result, data transit is unaffected.
• Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages.
• Point to Point links make fault transmission & fault isolation easy.
• The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports that are necessary.
• The sheer bulk of wiring can be greater than the available space can accommodate.
• It is difficult to install and reconfigure.

For more, you can refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Mesh Topology .

Example:  connection of telephone regional office in which each regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office. 

The topology of a tree is similar to that of a star. Nodes in a tree, like those in a star, are connected to a central hub that manages network traffic. It has a root node, which is connected to all other nodes, producing a hierarchy. Hierarchical topology is another name for it. The number of Star networks is connected via Bus in Tree Topology.

• Network expansion is both possible and simple.
• We partition the entire network into pieces (star networks) that are easier to manage and maintain.
• Other segments are unaffected if one segment is damaged.
• Tree topology relies largely on the main bus cable because of its basic structure, and if it fails, the entire network is handicapped.
• Maintenance becomes more challenging when more nodes and segments are added.

For more, you can refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Tree Topology .

Tree-Topology

What is Internet?

The Internet is a larger network that allows computer networks controlled by enterprises, governments, colleges, and other organizations all over the world to communicate with one another. As a result, there is a tangle of cables, computers, data centers, routers , servers, repeaters, satellites , and Wi-Fi towers that allow digital data to go around the world.

The Internet is a vast network of networks that functions as a networking infrastructure. It links millions of computers throughout the world, creating a network in which any computer can talk with any other computer as long as they are both linked to the Internet. The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate and share information using a standardized Internet Protocol Suite.

How to Connect to the Internet?

We can connect to the internet in the following ways:

• Dial-Up: In order to access the Internet, in this type of connection, users must connect their phone line to a computer. This link prevents the user from using tier home phone service to make or receive calls.
• Broadband: Broadband is a high-speed internet connection that is frequently utilized nowadays and is provided by cable or phone companies.
• Wireless Connections: Internet access is accomplished by radio waves , thus it is possible to connect to the Internet from any location. Wi-Fi and mobile service providers are examples of wireless connections.

Advantages of the Internet

• Source of Entertainment: Online gaming, talking, browsing, music, movies, dramas, and TV series are quickly becoming the most popular ways to pass the time.
• Source of Information: There is no better place to conduct research than the internet. We can learn about the latest trends, communicate with experts without having to physically visit them, and seek professional advice over the Internet.
• E-Commerce: With the advancement of internet technology, large online E-commerce enterprises such as Amazon, Ali Baba, myntra, etc. have emerged.
• Working from home, collaborating with others, and having access to a global workforce are all advantages.
• Keeps Updated: Because there are hundreds of thousands of newsgroups and services that keep you updated with every tick of the clock, the Internet is a source of the most recent news.

Disadvantages of the Internet

• Time Wastage: Most people believe that spending too much time on the internet is unhealthy for young people and leads to obesity. 
• Money Laundering: Aside from reputable sites, there are some Social Media Advertising sites that try to steal your personal information, credit card information, and even your pin code. You can easily become a victim of money scams if they get this information.
• Exposure to Private Data: It is now quite easy to decipher someone’s chat or email communication thanks to the hacking community. As we all know, data is transmitted in packets, which hackers can simply detect and reconstruct.
• Harassment & Threatening: Bullies exist online, just as they do in real life, and they can lower your self-esteem by harassing and threatening you. Some of these individuals may be persons who are aware of some of your personal details and dislike you and may use this information to harass you.

In conclusion, computer networking is essential because it allows computers to connect and communicate with each other. This connectivity enables them to share information and resources, making tasks easier and faster. Whether it’s a small network within a home or office ( LAN ) or a large network spreading across cities and countries ( WAN ), networking helps us stay connected, work together, and access the internet. It’s like having a team where everyone can instantly share ideas and tools, making collaboration smooth and efficient. So, computer networking is all about making connections that help us stay informed, productive, and connected to the world.

Frequently Asked Questions on Computer Networking – FAQs

What is a computer networking job.

Network specialists and administrators take care of the daily tasks to keep networks running smoothly. Network architects and engineers plan and create networks like LANs (Local Area Networks), WANs (Wide Area Networks), and Intranets.

What is the full form of www?

The full form of www is World Wide Web. It is the world’s most dominant software and is commonly known as the web.

The structure of the network and how each component is connected to the others are defined by the network topology.

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Comparative analysis between snort and suricata IDS software(s)

Description of the topic

The main focus of this research is to conduct a comparative analysis between Snort and Suricata software to determine which IDS software can provide better performance. There are various IDS software(s) available that can be used by organizations but it is difficult to identify which one is best (Aldarwbi et al., 2022). Different organizational structures are often facing problems while setting up an IDS system which results in false positives and intrusions. Through this research, it can be identified which IDS software is better and what secure configuration is required to detect intrusions (Waleed et al., 2022).

Research objectives

• To evaluate Snort and Suricata IDS software(s) to determine the most optimal one.
• To identify the false positive rate of Snort and Suricata on the networked environment.

Research questions

RQ1: Which IDS software can perform better on the production network in terms of performance, security, scalability and reliability?

RQ2: What different ways can be followed to deal with false positive problems in IDS technology?

Research methodology

The given research objectives and research questions can be addressed using quantitative research methodology where an experimental approach can be followed. For the given topic, both Snort and Suricata IDS systems should be configured and tested against different attacks. Depending on the findings, it can be analyzed which IDS software can perform better in terms of performance and security (Shuai & Li, 2021).

• Aldarwbi, M.Y., Lashkari, A.H. and Ghorbani, A.A. (2022) “The sound of intrusion: A novel network intrusion detection system,” Computers and Electrical Engineering , 104, p. 108455.
• Shuai, L. and Li, S. (2021) “Performance optimization of Snort based on DPDK and Hyperscan,” Procedia Computer Science , 183, pp. 837-843.
• Waleed, A., Jamali, A.F. and Masood, A. (2022) “Which open-source ids? Snort, Suricata or Zeek,” Computer Networks , 213, p. 109116.

Role of honeypots and honey nets in network security

Network Security has become essential nowadays and there is a need for setting up robust mechanisms to maintain confidentiality and integrity (Feng et al., 2023). Due to the number of security mechanisms available, organizations found it hard to finalize and implement them on their network. For example, honey pots and honeynet approaches look almost the same and have the same purpose but work differently. Under this research topic, the configuration of honeynets and honeypots can be done to check which one can perform better security in terms of trapping cyber attackers. The entire implementation can be carried out in the cloud-based instance for improved security and it can be identified which type of honey pot technology must be preferred (Maesschalck et al., 2022).

• To set up a honey pot system using Open Canary on the virtual instance to protect against cyber attackers.
• To set up a honeynet system on the virtual instance to assure protection is provided against malicious attackers.
• To test honeypots and honeynets by executing DDoS attacks to check which can provide better security.

RQ1: Why is there a need for using honeypots over honey pots in a production networked environment?

RQ2: What are the differences between cloud-based and local honey pot systems for endpoint protection?

This research can be carried out using the quantitative method of research. At the initial stage, the implementation of honeypots and honeypots can be done on the virtual instance following different security rules. Once the rules are applied, the testing can be performed using a Kali Linux machine to check whether honey pots were effective or honeynets (Gill et al., 2020).

• Feng, H. et al. (2023) “Game theory in network security for Digital Twins in industry,” Digital Communications and Networks [Preprint].
• Gill, K.S., Saxena, S. and Sharma, A. (2020) “GTM-CSEC: A game theoretic model for cloud security based on ids and Honeypot,” Computers & Security , 92, p. 101732
• Maesschalck, S. et al. (2022) “Don’t get stung, cover your ICS in honey: How do honeypots fit within industrial control system security,” Computers & Security , 114, p. 102598.

How do malware variants are progressively improving?

This research can be based on evaluating how malware variants are progressively improving and what should be its state in the coming future. Malware is able to compromise confidential user’s information assets which is why this research can be based on identifying current and future consequences owing to its improvements (Deng et al., 2023). In this field, there is no research work that has been carried out to identify how malware variants are improving their working and what is expected to see in future. Once the evaluation is done, a clear analysis can also be done on some intelligent preventive measures to deal with dangerous malware variants and prevent any kind of technological exploitation (Tang et al., 2023).

• To investigate types of malware variants available to learn more about malware's hidden features.
• To focus on future implications of malware executable programs and how they can be avoided.
• To discuss intelligent solutions to deal with all malware variants.

RQ1: How do improvements in malware variants impact enterprises?

RQ2: What additional solutions are required to deal with malware variants?

In this research, qualitative analysis can be conducted on malware variants and the main reason behind their increasing severity. The entire research can be completed based on qualitative research methodology to answer defined research questions and objectives. Some real-life case studies should also be integrated into the research which can be supported by the selected topic (Saidia Fasci et al., 2023).

• Deng, H. et al. (2023) “MCTVD: A malware classification method based on three-channel visualization and deep learning,” Computers & Security , 126, p. 103084.
• Saidia Fasci, L. et al. (2023) “Disarming visualization-based approaches in malware detection systems,” Computers & Security , 126, p. 103062.
• Tang, Y. et al. (2023) “BHMDC: A byte and hex n-gram based malware detection and classification method,” Computers & Security , p. 103118.

Implementation of IoT - enabled smart office/home using cisco packet tracer

The Internet of Things has gained much more attention over the past few years which is why each enterprise and individual aims at setting up an IoT network to automate their processes (Barriga et al., 2023). This research can be based on designing and implementing an IoT-enabled smart home/office network using Cisco Packet Tracer software. Logical workspace, all network devices, including IoT devices can be used for preparing a logical network star topology (Elias & Ali, 2014). To achieve automation, the use of different IoT rules can be done to allow devices to work based on defined rules.

• To set up an IoT network on a logical workspace using Cisco Packet Tracer simulation software.
• To set up IoT-enabled rules on an IoT registration server to achieve automation (Hou et al., 2023).

RQ: Why is the Cisco packet tracer preferred for network simulation over other network simulators?

At the beginning of this research, a quantitative research methodology can be followed where proper experimental set-up can be done. As a packet tracer is to be used, the star topology can be used to interconnect IoT devices, sensors and other network devices at the home/office. Once a placement is done, the configuration should be done using optimal settings and all IoT devices can be connected to the registration server. This server will have IoT rules which can help in achieving automation by automatically turning off lights and fans when no motion is detected (Baggan et al., 2022).

• Baggan, V. et al. (2022) “A comprehensive analysis and experimental evaluation of Routing Information Protocol: An Elucidation,” Materials Today: Proceedings , 49, pp. 3040–3045.
• Barriga, J.A. et al. (2023) “Design, code generation and simulation of IOT environments with mobility devices by using model-driven development: Simulateiot-Mobile,” Pervasive and Mobile Computing , 89, p. 101751.
• Elias, M.S. and Ali, A.Z. (2014) “Survey on the challenges faced by the lecturers in using packet tracer simulation in computer networking course,” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences , 131, pp. 11–15.
• Hou, L. et al. (2023) “Block-HRG: Block-based differentially private IOT networks release,” Ad Hoc Networks , 140, p. 103059.

Comparative analysis between AODV, DSDV and DSR routing protocols in WSN networks

For wireless sensor networks (WSN), there is a major need for using WSN routing rather than performing normal routines. As WSN networks are self-configured, there is a need for an optimal routing protocol that can improve network performance in terms of latency, jitter, and packet loss (Luo et al., 2023). There are often various problems faced when WSN networks are set up due to a lack of proper routing protocol selection. As a result of this, severe downtime is faced and all links are not able to communicate with each other easily (Hemanand et al., 2023). In this research topic, the three most widely used WSN routing protocols AODV, DSDV and DSR can be compared based on network performance. To perform analysis, three different scenarios can be created in network simulator 2 (Ns2).

• To create three different scenarios on ns2 software to simulate a network for 1 to 100 seconds.
• To analyze which WSN routing is optimal in terms of network performance metrics, including latency, jitter and packet loss.
• To use CBR and NULL agents for all wireless scenarios to start with simulation purposes.

RQ: How do AODV, DSR and DSDV routing protocols differ from each other in terms of network performance?

This research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. The implementation for the provided research topic can be based on Ns2 simulation software where three different scenarios can be created (AODV, DSDV and DSR). For each scenario, NULL, CSR and UDP agents can be done to start with simulation for almost 1 to 100 seconds. For all transmissions made during the given time, network performance can be checked to determine which routing is best (Mohapatra & Kanungo, 2012).

• Human and, D. et al. (2023) “Analysis of power optimization and enhanced routing protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks,” Measurement: Sensors , 25, p. 100610. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measen.2022.100610.
• Luo, S., Lai, Y. and Liu, J. (2023) “Selective forwarding attack detection and network recovery mechanism based on cloud-edge cooperation in software-defined wireless sensor network,” Computers & Security , 126, p. 103083. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2022.103083.
• Mohapatra, S. and Kanungo, P. (2012) “Performance analysis of AODV, DSR, OLSR and DSDV routing protocols using NS2 Simulator,” Procedia Engineering , 30, pp. 69–76. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2012.01.835.

Securing wireless network using AAA authentication and WLAN controller

Wireless networks often face intrusion attempts due to insecure protocols and sometimes open SSIDs. As a result of this, man-in-the-middle and eavesdropping attacks become easier which results in the loss of confidential information assets (Sivasankari & Kamalakkannan, 2022). When it comes to managing networks in a large area, there are higher chances for attacks that enable cyber attackers in intercepting ongoing communication sessions. However, there is currently no research conducted where the use of AAA authentication has been done with WLAN controllers to make sure a higher level of protection is provided (Nashwan, 2021). The proposed research topic can be based on securing wireless networks with the help of AAA authentication and WLAN controllers. The use of AAA authentication can be done to set up a login portal for users whilst the WLAN controller can be used for managing all wireless access points connected to the network (Nashwan, 2021).

• To set up AAA authentication service on the wireless network simulated on Cisco Packet Tracer for proper access control.
• To set up a WLAN controller on the network to manage all wireless access points effortlessly.
• To use WPA2-PSK protocol on the network to assure guest users are only able to access wireless networks over a secure protocol.

RQ1: What additional benefits are offered by AAA authentication on the WLAN networks?

RQ2: Why are wireless networks more likely to face network intrusions than wired networks?

This research topic is based on the secure implementation of a wireless LAN network using a Cisco packet tracer. Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. The implementation can be carried out using AAA authentication which can assure that access control is applied for wireless logins. On the other hand, a WLAN controller can also be configured which can ensure that all WAPs are managed (ZHANG et al., 2012).

• Nashwan, S. (2021) “AAA-WSN: Anonymous Access Authentication Scheme for wireless sensor networks in Big Data Environment,” Egyptian Informatics Journal , 22(1), pp. 15–26.
• Sivasankari, N. and Kamalakkannan, S. (2022) “Detection and prevention of man-in-the-middle attack in IOT network using regression modeling,” Advances in Engineering Software , 169, p. 103126.
• ZHANG, J. et al. (2012) “AAA authentication for Network mobility,” The Journal of China Universities of Posts and Telecommunications , 19(2), pp. 81-86.

OWASP's approach to secure web applications from web application exploits

The research can revolve around the development of web applications by considering OWASP's top 10 rules. Usually, web applications are deployed by organizations depending on their requirements and these applications are vulnerable to various exploits, including injection, broken authentication and other forgery attacks (Poston, 2020). Identifying every single vulnerability is difficult when reference is not taken and often organizations end up hosting a vulnerable server that leads to privacy issues and compromises confidential information easily. In this research, OWASP's top 10 approaches can be followed to develop a secure web application that can be able to protect against top web application exploits. This approach is based on emphasizing severe and minor vulnerabilities which must be patched for protecting against web application attacks (Deepa & Thilagam, 2016).

• The first objective can be setting up an insecure web application on the cloud environment which can be exploited with different techniques.
• The second objective can be to consider all techniques and procedures provided by OWASP's top 10 methodologies.
• The last objective can be applying all fixes to insecure web applications to make them resistant to OWASP top 10 attacks (Sonmez, 2019).

RQ1: What are the benefits of using OWASP's top 10 approaches to harden web applications in comparison to other security approaches?

The research methodology considered for this research project can be quantitative using an experimental approach. The practical work can be done for the selected topic using AWS or the Azure cloud platform. Simply, a virtual web server can be configured and set up with a secure and insecure web application. Following OWASP's top 10 techniques and procedures, the web application can be secured from possible attacks. In addition, insecure applications can also be exploited and results can be evaluated (Applebaum et al., 2021).

• Applebaum, S., Gaber, T. and Ahmed, A. (2021) “Signature-based and machine-learning-based web application firewalls: A short survey,” Procedia Computer Science , 189, pp. 359–367. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2021.05.105.
• Deepa, G. and Thilagam, P.S. (2016) “Securing web applications from injection and logic vulnerabilities: Approaches and challenges,” Information and Software Technology , 74, pp. 160–180. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infsof.2016.02.005.
• Poston, H. (2020) “Mapping the owasp top Ten to the blockchain,” Procedia Computer Science , 177, pp. 613-617. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2020.10.087.
• Sonmez, F.Ö. (2019) “Security qualitative metrics for Open Web Application Security Project Compliance,” Procedia Computer Science , 151, pp. 998-1003. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2019.04.140.

Importance of configuring RADIUS (AAA) server on the network

User authentication has become significant nowadays as it guarantees that a legitimate user is accessing the network. But a problem is faced when a particular security control is to be identified for authentication and authorization. These controls can be categorized based on mandatory access controls, role-based access control, setting up captive portals and many more. Despite several other security controls, one of the most efficient ones is the RADIUS server (SONG et al., 2008). This server can authenticate users on the network to make sure network resources are accessible to only legal users. This research topic can be based on understanding the importance of RADIUS servers on the network which can also be demonstrated with the help of the Cisco Packet Tracer. A network can be designed and equipped with a RADIUS server to ensure only legal users can access network resources (WANG et al., 2009).

• To configure RADIUS (AAA) server on the network which can be able to authenticate users who try to access network resources.
• To simulate a network on a packet tracer simulation software and verify network connectivity.

RQ1: What are other alternatives to RADIUS (AAA) authentication servers for network security?

RQ2: What are the common and similarities between RADIUS and TACACS+ servers?

As a logical network is to be designed and configured, a quantitative research methodology can be followed. In this research coursework, a secure network design can be done using a packet tracer network simulator, including a RADIUS server along with the DMZ area. The configuration for the RADIUS server can be done to allow users to only access network resources by authenticating and authorizing (Nugroho et al., 2022).

• Nugroho, Y.S. et al. (2022) “Dataset of network simulator related-question posts in stack overflow,” Data in Brief , 41, p. 107942.
• SONG, M., WANG, L. and SONG, J.-de (2008) “A secure fast handover scheme based on AAA protocol in Mobile IPv6 Networks,” The Journal of China Universities of Posts and Telecommunications , 15, pp. 14-18.
• WANG, L. et al. (2009) “A novel congestion control model for interworking AAA in heterogeneous networks,” The Journal of China Universities of Posts and Telecommunications , 16, pp. 97-101.

Comparing mod security and pF sense firewall to block illegitimate traffic

Firewalls are primarily used for endpoint security due to their advanced features ranging from blocking to IDS capabilities and many more. It is sometimes challenging to identify which type of firewall is best and due to this reason, agencies end up setting up misconfigured firewalls (Tiwari et al., 2022). This further results in a cyber breach, destroying all business operations. The research can be emphasizing conducting a comparison between the two most widely used firewalls i.e. Mod Security and pF sense. Using a virtualized environment, both firewalls can be configured and tested concerning possible cyber-attacks (Lu & Yang, 2020).

• To use the local environment to set up Mod security and pF sense firewall with appropriate access control rules.
• To test both firewalls by executing distributed denial of service attacks from a remote location.
• To compare which type of firewall can provide improved performance and robust security.

RQ: How do Mod security and pF sense differ from each other in terms of features and performance?

The practical experimentation for both firewalls can be done using a virtualized environment where two different machines can be created. Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method . The first machine can have Mod security and the second machine can have pF sense configured. A new subnet can be created which can have these two machines. The third machine can be an attacking machine which can be used for testing firewalls. The results obtained can be then evaluated to identify which firewall is best for providing security (Uçtu et al., 2021).

• Lu, N. and Yang, Y. (2020) “Application of evolutionary algorithm in performance optimization of Embedded Network Firewall,” Microprocessors and Microsystems , 76, p. 103087.
• Tiwari, A., Papini, S. and Hemamalini, V. (2022) “An enhanced optimization of parallel firewalls filtering rules for scalable high-speed networks,” Materials Today: Proceedings , 62, pp. 4800-4805.
• Uçtu, G. et al. (2021) “A suggested testbed to evaluate multicast network and threat prevention performance of Next Generation Firewalls,” Future Generation Computer Systems , 124, pp. 56-67.

Conducting a comprehensive investigation on the PETYA malware

The main purpose of this research is to conduct a comprehensive investigation of the PETYA malware variant (McIntosh et al., 2021). PETYA often falls under the category of ransomware attacks which not only corrupt and encrypt files but can compromise confidential information easily. Along with PETYA, there are other variants also which lead to a security outage and organizations are not able to detect these variants due to a lack of proper detection capabilities (Singh & Singh, 2021). In this research, a comprehensive analysis has been done on PETYA malware to identify its working and severity level. Depending upon possible causes of infection of PETYA malware, some proactive techniques can also be discussed (Singh & Singh, 2021). A separation discussion can also be made on other malware variants, their features, and many more.

• The main objective of this research is to scrutinize the working of PETYA malware because a ransomware attack can impact the micro and macro environment of the organizations severely.
• The working of PETYA malware along with its source code can be reviewed to identify its structure and encryption type.
• To list all possible CVE IDs which are exploited by the PETYA malware.

RQ1: How dangerous is PETYA malware in comparison to other ransomware malware?

This research can be based on qualitative research methodology to evaluate the working of PETYA malware from various aspects, the methodology followed and what are its implications. The research can be initiated by evaluating the working of PETYA malware, how it is triggered, what encryption is applied and other factors. A sample source code can also be analyzed to learn more about how cryptography is used with ransomware (Abijah Roseline & Geetha, 2021).

• Abijah Roseline, S. and Geetha, S. (2021) “A comprehensive survey of tools and techniques mitigating computer and mobile malware attacks,” Computers & Electrical Engineering , 92, p. 107143.
• McIntosh, T. et al. (2021) “Enforcing situation-aware access control to build malware-resilient file systems,” Future Generation Computer Systems , 115, pp. 568-582.
• Singh, J. and Singh, J. (2021) “A survey on machine learning-based malware detection in executable files,” Journal of Systems Architecture , 112, p. 101861.

Setting up a Live streaming server on the cloud platform

Nowadays, various organizations require a live streaming server to stream content depending upon their business. However, due to a lack of proper hardware, organizations are likely to face high network congestion, slowness and other problems (Ji et al., 2023). Referring to the recent cases, it has been observed that setting up a streaming server on the local environment is not expected to perform better than a cloud-based streaming server configuration (Martins et al., 2019). This particular research topic can be based on setting up a live streaming server on the AWS or Azure cloud platform to make sure high network bandwidth is provided with decreased latency. The research gap analysis would be conducted to analyze the performance of live streaming servers on local and cloud environments in terms of network performance metrics (Bilal et al., 2018).

• To set up a live streaming server on the AWS or Azure cloud platform to provide live streaming services.
• To use load balancers alongside streaming servers to ensure the load is balanced and scalability is achieved.
• To use Wireshark software to test network performance during live streaming.

RQ1: Why are in-house streaming servers not able to provide improved performance in comparison to cloud-based servers?

RQ2: What additional services are provided by cloud service providers which help in maintaining network performance?

The implementation is expected to carry out on the AWS cloud platform with other AWS services i.e. load balancer, private subnet and many more (Efthymiopoulou et al., 2017). Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. The configuration of ec2 instances can be done which can act as a streaming server for streaming media and games. For testing this project, the use of OBS studio can be done which can help in checking whether streaming is enabled or not. For network performance, Wireshark can be used for testing network performance (George et al., 2020).

• Bilal, KErbad, A. and Hefeeda, M. (2018) “QoE-aware distributed cloud-based live streaming of multi-sourced Multiview Videos,” Journal of Network and Computer Applications , 120, pp. 130-144.
• Efthymiopoulou, M. et al. (2017) “Robust control in cloud-assisted peer-to-peer live streaming systems,” Pervasive and Mobile Computing , 42, pp. 426-443.
• George, L.C. et al. (2020) “Usage visualization for the AWS services,” Procedia Computer Science , 176, pp. 3710–3717.
• Ji, X. et al. (2023) “Adaptive QoS-aware multipath congestion control for live streaming,” Computer Networks , 220, p. 109470.
• Martins, R. et al. (2019) “Iris: Secure reliable live-streaming with Opportunistic Mobile Edge Cloud offloading,” Future Generation Computer Systems , 101, pp. 272-292.

Significance of using OSINT framework for Network reconnaissance

Network reconnaissance is becoming important day by day when it comes to penetration testing. Almost all white hat hackers are dependent on the OSINT framework to start with network reconnaissance and footprinting when it comes to evaluating organizational infrastructure. On the other hand, cyber attackers are also using this technique to start fetching information about their target. Currently, there is no investigation carried out to identify how effective the OSINT framework is over traditional reconnaissance activities (Liu et al., 2022). This research is focused on using OSINT techniques to analyze victims using different sets of tools like Maltego, email analysis and many other techniques. The analysis can be based on fetching sensitive information about the target which can be used for conducting illegal activities (Abdullah, 2019).

• To use Maltego software to conduct network reconnaissance on the target by fetching sensitive information.
• To compare the OSINT framework with other techniques to analyze why it performs well.

RQ1: What is the significance of using the OSINT framework in conducting network reconnaissance?

RQ2: How can the OSINT framework be used by cyber hackers for conducting illegitimate activities?

The OSINT framework is easily accessible on its official website where different search options are given. Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. Depending upon the selected target, each option can be selected and tools can be shortlisted for final implementation. Once the tools are shortlisted, they can be used to conduct network reconnaissance (González-Granadillo et al., 2021). For example, Maltego can be used as it is a powerful software to fetch information about the target.

• Abdullah, S.A. (2019) “Seui-64, bits an IPv6 addressing strategy to mitigate reconnaissance attacks,” Engineering Science and Technology , an International Journal, 22(2), pp. 667–672.
• Gonzalez-Granadillo, G. et al. (2021) “ETIP: An enriched threat intelligence platform for improving OSINT correlation, analysis, visualization and sharing capabilities,” Journal of Information Security and Applications , 58, p. 102715.
• Liu, W. et al. (2022) “A hybrid optimization framework for UAV Reconnaissance Mission Planning,” Computers & Industrial Engineering , 173, p. 108653.

Wired and wireless network hardening in cisco packet tracer

At present, network security has become essential and if enterprises are not paying attention to the security infrastructure, there are several chances for cyber breaches. To overcome all these issues, there is a need for setting up secure wired and wireless networks following different techniques such as filtered ports, firewalls, VLANs and other security mechanisms. For the practical part, the use of packet tracer software can be done to design and implement a highly secure network (Sun, 2022).

• To use packet tracer simulation software to set up secure wired and wireless networks.
• Use different hardening techniques, including access control rules, port filtering, enabling passwords and many more to assure only authorized users can access the network (Zhang et al., 2012).

RQ: Why is there a need for emphasizing wired and wireless network security?

Following the quantitative approach, the proposed research topic implementation can be performed in Cisco Packet Tracer simulation software. Several devices such as routers, switches, firewalls, wireless access points, hosts and workstations can be configured and interconnected using Cat 6 e cabling. For security, every device can be checked and secure design principles can be followed like access control rules, disabled open ports, passwords, encryption and many more (Smith & Hasan, 2020).

• Smith, J.D. and Hasan, M. (2020) “Quantitative approaches for the evaluation of Implementation Research Studies,” Psychiatry Research , 283, p. 112521.
• Sun, J. (2022) “Computer Network Security Technology and prevention strategy analysis,” Procedia Computer Science , 208, pp. 570–576.
• Zhang, YLiang, R. and Ma, H. (2012) “Teaching innovation in computer network course for undergraduate students with a packet tracer,” IERI Procedia , 2, pp. 504–510.

Different Preemptive ways to resist spear phishing attacks

When it comes to social engineering, phishing attacks are rising and are becoming one of the most common ethical issues as it is one of the easiest ways to trick victims into stealing information. This research topic is based on following different proactive techniques which would help in resisting spear phishing attacks (Xu et al., 2023). This can be achieved by using the Go-Phish filter on the machine which can automatically detect and alert users as soon as the phished URL is detected. It can be performed on the cloud platform where the apache2 server can be configured along with an anti-phishing filter to protect against phishing attacks (Yoo & Cho, 2022).

• To set up a virtual instance on the cloud platform with an apache2 server and anti-phishing software to detect possible phishing attacks.
• To research spear phishing and other types of phishing attacks that can be faced by victims (Al-Hamar et al., 2021).

RQ1: Are phishing attacks growing just like other cyber-attacks?

RQ2: How effective are anti-phishing filters in comparison to cyber awareness sessions?

The entire research can be conducted by adhering to quantitative research methodology which helps in justifying all research objectives and questions. The implementation of the anti-phishing filter can be done by creating a virtual instance on the cloud platform which can be configured with an anti-phishing filter. Along with this, some phishing attempts can also be performed to check whether the filter works or not (Siddiqui et al., 2022).

• Al-Hamar, Y. et al. (2021) “Enterprise credential spear-phishing attack detection,” Computers & Electrical Engineering , 94, p. 107363.
• Siddiqui, N. et al. (2022) “A comparative analysis of US and Indian laws against phishing attacks,” Materials Today: Proceedings , 49, pp. 3646–3649.
• Xu, T., Singh, K. and Rajivan, P. (2023) “Personalized persuasion: Quantifying susceptibility to information exploitation in spear-phishing attacks,” Applied Ergonomics , 108, p. 103908.
• Yoo, J. and Cho, Y. (2022) “ICSA: Intelligent chatbot security assistant using text-CNN and multi-phase real-time defense against SNS phishing attacks,” Expert Systems with Applications , 207, p. 117893.

Evaluating the effectiveness of distributed denial of service attacks

The given research topic is based on evaluating the effectiveness of distributed denial of service attacks on cloud and local environments. Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. Cyber attackers find DDoS as one of the most dangerous technological exploitation when it comes to impacting network availability (Krishna Kishore et al., 2023). This research can revolve around scrutinizing the impact of DDoS attacks on the local environment and cloud environment. This can be done by executing DDoS attacks on a simulated environment using hoping or other software(s) to check where it has a higher magnitude (de Neira et al., 2023).

• To set up a server on the local and cloud environment to target using DDoS attacks for checking which had experienced slowness.
• To determine types of DDoS attack types, their magnitude and possible mitigation techniques.

RQ: Why do DDoS attacks have dynamic nature and how is it likely to sternly impact victims?

The experimentation for this research can be executed by creating a server on the local and cloud environment. Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. These servers can be set up as web servers using apache 2 service. On the other hand, a Kali Linux machine can be configured with DDoS execution software. Each server can be targeted with DDoS attacks to check its effectiveness (Benlloch-Caballero et al., 2023).

• Benlloch-Caballero, P., Wang, Q. and Alcaraz Calero, J.M. (2023) “Distributed dual-layer autonomous closed loops for self-protection of 5G/6G IOT networks from distributed denial of service attacks,” Computer Networks , 222, p. 109526.
• de Neira, A.B., Kantarci, B. and Nogueira, M. (2023) “Distributed denial of service attack prediction: Challenges, open issues and opportunities,” Computer Networks , 222, p. 109553.
• Krishna Kishore, P., Ramamoorthy, S. and Rajavarman, V.N. (2023) “ARTP: Anomaly-based real time prevention of distributed denial of service attacks on the web using machine learning approach,” International Journal of Intelligent Networks , 4, pp. 38–45.

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Research in every field is becoming more and more essential because of constant developments around the world. Similar is the case in the field of networking. This is the reason; students who are preparing to master the field of networking need to keep their knowledge of the current state of the art in the field up to date.

However, choosing the right research topic often becomes a tough task for students to carry out their research effectively. That being the case, this list contains 15 latest research topics in the field of networking. Whether you are a seasoned researcher or just starting, this list can provide you with ample inspiration and guidance to drive your research forward in the dynamic and evolving field of Networking.

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Network Science (2005)

Chapter: 8 conclusions and recommendations, 8 conclusions and recommendations.

In this chapter the committee combines its findings into conclusions and offers recommendations. First, it collects the factual findings presented in Chapters 2 - 7 into three overarching conclusions concerning the importance of networks and the current state of knowledge about them. Next, it articulates specific conclusions that are directly responsive to Items 1 through 3 of the statement of task. Finally, in response to Item 4, the committee provides its recommendations, including for research initiatives. Box 8-1 summarizes how the report responds to the statement of task.

OVERARCHING CONCLUSIONS

Conclusion 1. Networks are pervasive in all aspects of life: biological, physical, and social. They are indispensable to the workings of a global economy and to the defense of the United States against both conventional military threats and the threat of terrorism.

Conclusion 1 was developed in Chapters 2 and 3 and summarized in Tables 2-1 , 2-2 , and 3-1 and the discussions surrounding them. It sets the stage for the committee’s inquiry into the state of knowledge about these networks.

Conclusion 2. Fundamental knowledge about the prediction of the properties of complex networks is primitive.

Given the pervasiveness and vital importance of networks, one might assume that a lot is known about them. As documented in Chapters 5 and 6 , however, this is not the case. Although the technology for constructing and operating engineered physical networks is sophisticated, critical questions about their robustness, stability, scaling, and performance cannot be answered with confidence without extensive simulation and testing. For large global networks, even simulations are often inadequate. The design and operation of network components (such things as computers, routers, or radios) are based on fundamental knowledge gleaned from physics, chemistry, and materials science. However, there is no comparable fundamental knowledge that allows the a priori prediction of the properties of complex assemblies of these components into networks. Indeed, such networks are expected to exhibit emergent behaviors—that is, behaviors that cannot be predicted or anticipated from the known behaviors of their components. In the case of social and biological networks, even the properties of the components are poorly known. A huge gap exists between the demand for knowledge about the networks on which our lives depend and the availability of that knowledge.

The committee learned that developing predictive models of the behavior of large, complex networks is difficult. There are relatively few rigorous results to describe the scaling of their behaviors with increasing size. Surprisingly, this is true for common engineered networks like the Internet as well as for social and biological networks.

Simulation rather than analysis is the research tool of choice. In the case of social networks, even simulation is vastly complicated by the diversity and complexity of the agents that are the nodes of the networks—humans or groups of humans “in the wild.” Which of their many properties are relevant for developing mathematical models of a particular phenomenon? Existing models of social networks, moreover, represent highly simplified situations and not necessarily ones that are relevant to the Army or network-centric warfare.

Finally, the notion of using network models in biology is relatively new. Controversy swirls around their utility, indeed around that of systems biology itself. In spite of a burgeoning literature on the structure of simple networks, the advancement of the field to allow relating basic scientific results to applications of societal and military interest still lies mostly in the future.

Conclusion 3. Current funding policies and priorities are unlikely to provide adequate fundamental knowledge about large complex networks.

Fundamental knowledge is created and stockpiled in disciplinary environments, mostly at universities, and then used as required by (vertically integrated) industries to provide the products and services required by customers, including the military. This fundamental knowledge is different in kind from empirical knowledge gleaned during the development of technology and products. You get what you measure. Suppliers of fundamental knowledge measure publications, presentations, students supervised, awards received, and other metrics associated with individual investigators. The knowledge accumulates along traditional disciplinary lines because this is where the rewards are found. Large team activities are

relatively rare (except in medicine and large-scale physics experiments) and are mostly left to the consumers of the fundamental knowledge, who must supplement the fundamental knowledge generously with empirical knowledge to convert it into the goods and services desired by the paying customer.

This scheme worked marvelously for more than a half a century, when the United States dominated the world and industries were vertically integrated. With the onset of the global economy in the 1990s, however, the situation began to change dramatically, for a number of reasons. First, knowledge, investment capital, technology, and technical labor are becoming globally available commodities. Second, economic activity, including R&D, is becoming global in scale. Third, these two trends are making the networks on which we depend ever larger and more complex and their susceptibility to disruption ever greater.

This traditional scheme does not work well for generating knowledge about global networks, because focused, coordinated efforts are needed. Thus, there is a huge difference between the social and financial arrangements needed to gain fundamental knowledge about large, complex networks in a global environment and the arrangements that worked so well to provide such knowledge for the design and production of smaller, less complex entities in a national environment. Any successful effort to create the knowledge necessary to secure robust, reliable scalable global networks must come to grips with this reality.

Overall, the committee is led to a view of networks as pervasive in and vital to modern society, yet understood only as well as the solar system was understood in Ptolemy’s time. The military has made networks the centerpiece of its transformation effort without a methodology to design networks in the physical and information domains in a predictive way for network-centric operations (NCO). Further, according to the DOD Office of Force Transformation, research in the cognitive and social domains has yet to yield advances comparable to the technological developments in the information domain. At the same time, current efforts by academia to describe networks are fragmented and disjointed. Relatively little of the current research on networks promises to create a science of networks that will generate knowledge adequate to meet the demand.

In short, there is a massive disconnect between the importance of networks in modern society and military affairs on the one hand and, on the other, the support of coherent R&D activities that would raise current network technologies and capabilities to the next level. The Army alone cannot transform this situation, but it can make a beginning.

SPECIFIC CONCLUSIONS

Items 1 and 2 in the statement of task inquire into the appropriateness of a field of investigation called network science and its definition, content, and the research challenges that would characterize it. Elements of a field of network science have begun to emerge in different disciplines spanning engineering, biological, and social networks. The emerging field is concerned with the development and analysis of network representations to create predictive models of observed physical, biological, and social phenomena.

The remarkable diversity and pervasiveness of network ideas renders the study of network science a highly leveraged topic for both civilian and military investment. The provisional consensus around its core content clearly defines the notion of network science. By making an investment in network science, the Army could forge a single approach to a diverse collection of applications.

Conclusion 4. Network science is an emerging field of investigation whose support will address important societal problems, including the Army’s pursuit of network-centric operations capabilities.

Although the boundaries of network science are fuzzy, there is broad agreement on key topics that should be included within the field, the types of tools that must be developed, and the research challenges that should be investigated. These were documented in Chapters 3 and 4 .

Conclusion 5. There is a consensus among the practitioners of research on networks for physical, biological, social, and information applications on the topics that make up network science.

Responses to its questionnaire greatly assisted the committee in determining “the key research challenges to enable progress in network science.” These responses establish that there is a fair degree of consensus on these challenges across practitioners in diverse applications areas.

Conclusion 6. There are seven major research challenges the surmounting of which will enable progress in network science:

Dynamics, spatial location, and information propagation in networks. Better understanding of the relationship between the architecture of a network and its function is needed.

Modeling and analysis of very large networks. Tools, abstractions, and approximations are needed that allow reasoning about large-scale networks, as well as techniques for modeling networks characterized by noisy and incomplete data.

Design and synthesis of networks. Techniques are needed to design or modify a network to obtain desired properties.

Increasing the level of rigor and mathematical structure. Many of the respondents to the questionnaire felt that the current state of the art in network

science did not have an appropriately rigorous mathematical basis.

Abstracting common concepts across fields. The disparate disciplines need common concepts defined across network science.

Better experiments and measurements of network structure. Current data sets on large-scale networks tend to be sparse, and tools for investigating their structure and function are limited.

Robustness and security of networks. Finally, there is a clear need to better understand and design networked systems that are both robust to variations in the components (including localized failures) and secure against hostile intent.

These challenges are elaborated in terms of specific research issues and their theoretical, experimental, and practical difficulties in Chapter 7 and Appendix E within the framework of exploring various investment scenarios. The scenarios respond to Item 3 in the statement of task.

Although all the military services have a vision of the future in which engineered communications networks play a fundamental role, there is no methodology for ensuring that these networks are scalable, reliable, robust, and secure. Of particular importance is the ability to design networks whose behaviors are predictable in their intended domains of applications. This also is true in the commercial sphere. Creation of such a methodology is an especially pressing task because global commercial networks can also be exploited by criminal and terrorist social networks.

Conclusion 7. The high value attached to the efficient and failure-free operation of global engineered networks makes their design, scaling, and operation a national priority.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The statement of task requests investment recommendations from the committee. Options for these recommendations are explored in Chapter 7 and Appendix E . The committee documents in Chapters 2 and 3 that the impact of networks on society transcends their impact on military applications, although both are vital aspects of the total picture. Chapters 3 and 4 explain that the current state of knowledge about networks does not support the design and operation of complex global networks for current military, political, and economic applications. Advances in network science are essential to developing adequate knowledge for these applications.

Recommendation 1. The federal government should initiate a focused program of research and development to close the gap between currently available knowledge about networks and the knowledge required to characterize and sustain the complex global networks on which the well-being of the United States has come to depend.

This recommendation is buttressed by centuries of evidence that disruptive social networks (e.g., terrorists, criminals) learn to exploit evolving infrastructure networks (e.g., communications or transportation) in ways that the creators of these networks did not anticipate. The global war on terrorism, which is a main driver of military transformation, is only one recent manifestation of this general pattern. Society has the same need in other areas, such as control of criminal activities perpetrated using the global airline and information infrastructures. Addressing problems resulting from the interaction of social and engineered networks is an example of a compelling national issue that transcends the transformation of the military and that is largely untouched by current research on networks.

Within this broad context, Recommendations 1a, 1b, and 1c provide the Army with three options:

Recommendation 1a. The Army, in coordination with other federal agencies, should underwrite a broad network research initiative that includes substantial resources for both military and nonmilitary applications that would address military, economic, criminal, and terrorist threats.

The Army can lead the country in creating a base of network knowledge that can support applications for both the Army and the country at large. Maximum impact could be obtained by a coordinated effort across a variety of federal agencies, including the DOD and the Department of Homeland Security, to create a focused national program of network research that would develop applications to support not only NCO but also countermeasures against international terrorist and criminal threats.

Alternatively, if the Army is restricted to working just with the DOD, it should initiate a focused program to create an achievable vision of NCO capabilities across all the services.

Recommendation 1b. If the Army wants to exploit fully applications in the information domain for military operations in a reasonable time frame and at an affordable cost, it should champion the initiation of a high-priority, focused DOD effort to create a realizable vision of the associated capabilities and to lay out a trajectory for its realization.

Finally, if the Army elects to apply the insight from the committee primarily to its own operations, it can still provide leadership in network science research.

TABLE 8-1 Network Research Areas

Recommendation 1c. The Army should support an aggressive program of both basic and applied research to improve its NCO capabilities.

Specific areas of research of interest to the Army are shown in Table 8-1 . This table expresses the committee’s assessment of the relative priorities for these areas, the time frames in which one might reasonably expect them to be consummated as actionable technology investment options, and the degree of commercial interest in exploiting promising options. Specific research problems and sample projects are given in Appendix E . The committee notes that both trained personnel and promising research problems exist in many of these areas, so the Army should be able to create a productive program readily.

By selecting from among Recommendations 1a through 1c an option that is ambitious yet achievable, the Army can lead the country in creating a base of knowledge emanating from network science that is adequate to support applications on which both the Army and the country at large depend. Regardless of which option (or options) are adopted, Army initiatives in network science should be grounded in basic research.

Recommendation 1d. The initiatives recommended in 1, 1a, 1b, and 1c should include not only theoretical studies but also the experimental testing of new ideas in settings sufficiently realistic to verify or disprove their use for intended applications.

Recommendations 1, 1a, 1b, and 1c span only part of the investment opportunity space—namely, those segments of the space described in Scenarios 2 and 3 in Chapter 7 and Appendix E . They will involve substantial changes in how the Army invests its R&D dollars and in how it plans and manages these investments.

The Army also has the opportunity associated with Scenario 1 in Chapter 7 , which involves funding a small program of basic research in network science. This investment of relatively small amounts of Army risk capital funds would create a base of knowledge and personnel from which the Army could launch an attack on practical problems that arise as it tries to provide NCO capabilities.

Investments in basic (6.1) research in network science can generate significant value; however, the committee wants to be crystal clear that such investments have no immediate prospects of impacting the design, testing, evaluation, or sourcing of NCO capabilities. They would create additional knowledge that builds the core content of network science, and they would train researchers who could also be recruited by the Army for later efforts. While the knowledge generated would probably be less valuable than in the case

of Scenarios 2 and 3, the cost is less and implementation can be immediate.

If the Army elects to exploit Scenario 1, the committee offers the following two further recommendations:

Recommendation 2. The Army should make a modest investment of at least $10 million per year to support a diverse portfolio of basic (6.1) network research that promises high leverage for the dollars invested and is clearly different from existing investments by other federal agencies like the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Department of Energy (DOE), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

This modest level of investment is compatible with the Army’s current R&D portfolio. There is an adequate supply of promising research topics and talented researchers to make this investment productive. Additionally, it can be implemented within the Army’s current R&D management work processes, although some enhancements along the lines noted in Chapter 7 and Appendix E would improve the return on this investment.

To identify the topics in basic network science research that would bring the most value to NCO, the committee recalls that the open system architectures for computer networks consist of layers, each of which performs a special function regarded as a “service” by the layers above. It is useful to distinguish among the lower (physical and transport) layers of this architecture, the higher (applications) layers that are built on top of them to offer services to the people, and the cognitive and social networks that are built higher still, on top of the services-to-humans layers.

Research on the lower layers of the network architecture is relatively mature. Improving the services offered at these levels is more of an engineering problem than one requiring basic research. The most immediate payoffs from network science are likely to result from research associated with the upper levels of the network architecture and the social networks that are built at an even higher level upon their outputs. This is where the committee thinks that Army investments are most likely to create the greatest value.

An area of particular promise that has little or no current investment is the social implications of NCO for the organizational structure and command and control. Basic research could provide valuable insight into how military personnel use advanced information exchange capabilities to improve combat effectiveness. For example, one might study how troops in combat could use these capabilities to make better decisions. Additional basic research in the core content of network science might help to determine how the Army can most productively utilize the capabilities of its advanced information infrastructure.

Recommendation 3. The Army should fund a basic research program to explore the interaction between information networks and the social networks that utilize them.

The Army can implement Recommendations 2 and 3 within the confines of its present policies and procedures. They require neither substantial replanning nor the orchestration of joint Army/university/industry research projects. They create significant value and are actionable immediately.

The committee’s Recommendations 1, 1a through 1d, 2, and 3 give the Army an actionable menu of options that span the opportunity space available. By selecting and implementing appropriate items from this menu, the Army can develop a robust network science to “enable progress toward achieving Network-Centric Warfare capabilities,” as requested in the statement of task.

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The military is currently attempting to develop itself into a force capable of networkcentric operations. While this effort has highlighted the military's dependence on interacting networks, it has also shown that there is a huge gap between what we need to know about networks and our fundamental knowledge about network behavior. This gap makes the military vision of NCO problematic. To help address this problem, the Army asked the NRC to find out whether identifying and funding a new field of "network science" could help close this gap. This report presents an examination of networks andthe military, an analysis of the promise, content, and challenges of network science, and an assessment of approaches to creating value from network science.

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Computer Networking Dissertation Topics

Published by Carmen Troy at January 5th, 2023 , Revised On May 16, 2024

A dissertation is an essential aspect of completing your degree program. Whether you are pursuing your master’s or are enrolled in a PhD program, you will not be awarded a degree without successfully submitting a thesis. To ensure that your thesis is submitted successfully without any hindrances, you should first get your topic and dissertation outline approved by your professor. When approving, supervisors focus on a lot of aspects.

However, relevance, recency, and conciseness play a huge role in accepting or rejecting your topic.

As a computer networking student, you have a variety of networking topics to choose from. With the field evolving with each passing day, you must ensure that your thesis covers recent computer networking topics and explores a relevant problem or issue. To help you choose the right topic for your dissertation, here is a list of recent and relevant computer networking dissertation topics.

List Of Trending Ideas For Your Computer Networking Dissertation

• Machine learning for proactive network anomaly detection 
• The role of software-defined-networking (SDN) for network performance and security 
• Applications and challenges of 6G technologies 
• How to ensure fairness and efficiency in Multi-Access Edge Computing (MEC)
• Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks in the Age of Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attacks
• Applications and rise of Low-Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs)
• Efficient Resource Allocation and Quality-of-Service (QoS) Management
• Ethical Implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Network Management
• The best ways to use Blockchain for Tamper-Proof Evidence Collection and Storage
• Role of Network Operators in Cloud Gaming

Computer Networking Dissertation Topics For Your Research

Topic 1: an evaluation of the network security during machine to machine communication in iot.

Research Aim: The research aims to evaluate the network security issues associated with M2M communication in IoT.

 Objectives:

• To evaluate the factors affecting the network security of IoT devices.
• To determine the methods for increasing data integrity in M2M communication against physical tampering and unauthorised monitoring.
• To evaluate the network security issues associated with M2M communication in IoT and offer suitable recommendations for improvement.

Topic 2: An analysis of the cybersecurity challenges in public clouds and appropriate intrusion detection mechanisms.

Research Aim: The aim of the research is to analyse the cybersecurity challenges in public clouds and the appropriate intrusion detection mechanisms.

Objectives:

• To analyse the types of cybersecurity threats impacting public clouds.
• To determine some of the competent intrusion detection techniques that can be used in cloud computing.
• To investigate the cybersecurity challenges in public clouds and offer mitigating with appropriate intrusion detection techniques.

Topic 3: Investigating the impact of SaaS cloud ERP on the scalability and cost-effectiveness of business.

Research Aim: The research aims to investigate the impact of SaaS cloud ERP on the scalability and cost-effectiveness of business.

• To analyse the benefits of SaaS ERP over traditional ERP.
• To evaluate the characteristics of SaaS architecture in cloud computing and determine its varieties.
• To investigate how SaaS cloud ERP impacts business scalability and cost-effectiveness.

Topic 4: An evaluation of the requirements of cloud repatriation and the challenges associated with it.

Research Aim: The research aims to evaluate the requirements of cloud repatriation in organisations and the associated challenges

• To analyse the key factors of cloud repatriation.
• To determine the challenges associated with cloud repatriation from public clouds.
• To evaluate the need for cloud repatriation in organisations and the associated complexities

Topic 5: An examination of the security mechanisms in decentralised networks and the ways of enhancing system robustness

Research Aim: The research aims to investigate the security mechanisms in decentralised networks and the ways of enhancing system robustness.

• To analyse the concept of decentralised networks and understand their difference from centralised networks.
• To analyse the security mechanisms in decentralised networks to determine how it offers visibility and traceability.
• To investigate the security mechanisms in decentralised networks and how system robustness can be increased for better privacy and security.

Latest Computer Networking Dissertation Topics

Exploring the importance of computer networking in today’s era.

Research Aim: Even though computer networking has been practised for a few years now, its importance has increased immensely over the past two years. A few main reasons include the use of technology by almost every business and the aim to offer customers an easy and convenient shopping experience. The main aim of this research will be to explain the concepts of computer networking, its benefits, and its importance in the current era. The research will also discuss how computer networking has helped businesses and individuals perform their work and benefit from it. The research will then specifically state examples where computer networking has brought positive changes and helped people achieve what they want.

Wireless Networks in Business Settings – An Analysis

Research Aim: Wireless networks are crucial in computer networking. They help build networks seamlessly, and once the networks are set up on a wireless network, it becomes extremely easy for the business to perform its daily activities. This research will investigate all about wireless networks in a business setting. It will first introduce the various wireless networks that can be utilised by a business and will then talk about how these networks help companies build their workflow around them. The study will analyse different wireless networks used by businesses and will conclude how beneficial they are and how they are helping the business.

Understanding Virtual Private Networks – A Deep Analysis of Their Challenges

Research Aim: Private virtual networks (VPN) are extremely common today. These are used by businesses and individuals alike. This research aims to understand how these networks operate and how they help businesses build strong and successful systems and address the challenges of VPNs. A lot of businesses do not adopt virtual private networks due to the challenges that they bring. This research will address these challenges in a way that will help businesses implement VPNs successfully.

A Survey of the Application of Wireless Sensor Networks

Research Aim: Wireless sensor networks are self-configured, infrastructure-less wireless networks to pass data. These networks are now extremely popular amongst businesses because they can solve problems in various application domains and possess the capacity to change the way work is done. This research will investigate where wireless sensor networks are implemented, how they are being used, and how they are performing. The research will also investigate how businesses implement these systems and consider factors when utilising these wireless sensor networks.

Computer Network Security Attacks – Systems and Methods to Respond

Research Aim: With the advent of technology today, computer networks are extremely prone to security attacks. A lot of networks have security systems in place. However, people with nefarious intent find one way to intrude and steal data/information. This research will address major security attacks that have impacted businesses and will aim to address this challenge. Various methods and systems will be highlighted to protect the computer networks. In addition to this, the research will also discuss various methods to respond to attacks and to keep the business network protected.

Preventing a Cyberattack – How Can You Build a Powerful Computer Network?

Research Aim: Cyberattacks are extremely common these days. No matter how powerful your network is, you might be a victim of phishing or hacking. The main aim of this research will be to outline how a powerful computer network can be built. Various methods to build a safe computer network that can keep data and information will be outlined, and the study will also highlight ways to prevent a cyberattack. In addition to this, the research will talk about the steps that should be taken to keep the computer network safe. The research will conclude with the best way and system to build a powerful and safe computer network.

Types of Computer Networks: A Comparison and Analysis

Research Aim: There are different types of computer networks, including LAN, WAN, PAN, MAN, CAN, SAN, etc. This research will discuss all the various types of computer networks to help readers understand how all these networks work. The study will then compare the different types of networks and analyse how each of them is implemented in different settings. The dissertation will also discuss the type of computer networks that businesses should use and how they can use them for their success. The study will then conclude which computer network is the best and how it can benefit when implemented.

Detecting Computer Network Attacks by Signatures and Fast Content Analysis

Research Aim: With technological advancement, today, many computer network attacks can be detected beforehand. While many techniques are utilised for detecting these attacks, the use of signatures and fast content analysis are the most popular ones. This research will explore these techniques in detail and help understand how they can detect a computer network attack and prevent it. The research will present different ways these techniques are utilised to detect an attack and help build powerful and safe computer networks. The research will then conclude how helpful these two techniques are and whether businesses should implement them.

Overview of Wireless Network Technologies and their Role in Healthcare

Research Aim: Wireless network technologies are utilised by several industries. Their uses and benefits have helped businesses resolve many business problems and assisted them in conducting their daily activities without any hindrance. This networking topic will help explore how wireless network technologies work and will talk about their benefits. This research aims to find out how wireless technologies help businesses carry out their daily routine tasks effortlessly. For this research, the focus will be on the healthcare industry. The study will investigate how wireless network technology has helped the healthcare sector and how it has benefited them to perform their daily tasks without much effort.

Setting up a Business Communication System over a Computer Network

Research Aim: Communication is an essential aspect of every business. Employees need to communicate effectively to keep the business going. In the absence of effective communication, businesses suffer a lot as the departments are not synchronised, and the operations are haphazard. This research will explore the different ways through which network technologies help conduct smooth and effective communication within organisations. This research will conclude how wireless networks have helped businesses build effective communication systems within their organisation and how they have benefited from it. It will then conclude how businesses have improved and solved major business problems with the help of these systems.

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• Review recent research papers.
• Explore IoT, cybersecurity , and cloud computing.
• Consider real-world applications.
• Select a topic aligned with your expertise and career aspirations.

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Computer Networking: Referencing and Citing

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Referencing and citation

• It is important (morally & legally) to acknowledge someone else’s ideas or words you have used. Academic writing encourages paraphrasing information you have researched and read.
• Paraphrasing means re-wording something you have read in to your own words. If you use someone else’s words or work and fail to acknowledge them – you may be accused of plagiarism and infringing copyright.
• Referencing correctly enables the marker or reader of your assignment to locate the source of the information. They can verify the information or read further on the topic.
• Referencing also allows for you to retrace your steps and locate information you have used for assignments and discover further views or ideas discussed by the author.By referencing clearly and correctly, it demonstrates you have undertaken research on the assignment topic and located relevant information.

Learn important tips for reference and how to reference from our referencing guide, here .

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Jared Padalecki Slams ‘Supernatural’ & ‘Walker’ Network, The CW, as ‘Cheap’ Amid Changes

After wrapping his last TV series with the network, Jared got 'brutally honest' in a new interview about the changes happening at The CW.

Jared Padalecki is speaking his mind about The CW’s changes. During a recent interview, the 41-year-old actor got “brutally honest” about the new direction of the network, which distributed both of Jared’s most popular shows Walker  and Supernatural .

“I feel like The CW that I was a part of last year is not The CW that I was a part of under [former CEO] Mark Pedowitz for that entire, almost 20-year stretch,” Jared explained to Variety in the interview that was published on Wednesday June 26.

He went on to claim that The CW is “just changing the network around, where it’s not really going to be a TV network as much as it’s going to be, ‘Here’s something fun for an hour that you’ll never watch again, but hopefully you watch it. And it’s cheap!'”

“And I hate to say that, but I’m just being honest,” Jared continued, before adding, “I mean, f**k it. They can’t fire me again. I’m just being brutally honest. I think it felt to me like they were looking for really easy, cheap content that they could fill up time with.”

Walker was recently canceled after four seasons on the air. The show joined a string of other series distributed by The CW that were also not renewed, including The Winchesters and Gotham Knights . Jared’s former Supernatural co-star Jensen Ackles produced The Winchesters, and Misha starred in Gotham Knights . Both shows were axed after one season on the air.

Nexstar Media Group acquired a large percentage of The CW in 2022 and has introduced unscripted shows to the platform. During his new interview, Jared pointed out that he spoke with both the head of CBS Studios and the head of Nexstar/The CW, calling the network’s new direction a “multivariate kind of issue” from his perspective.

“My understanding is — and again, this is just what I’m told — that Nexstar is going in a different direction with The CW,” the Gilmore Girls alum said. “I mean, they have an hour of Trivial Pursuit and an hour of Scrabble coming up.”

Ex-Uvalde school police chief Arredondo didn't stop gunman 'hunting and shooting' students

An indictment made public friday accuses former uvalde school police chief pete arredondo of missteps that led to the botched response to an active shooter who killed 19 children and two teachers..

UVALDE, Texas — A 10-count indictment made public Friday accuses former Uvalde school district police chief Pete Arredondo of 10 missteps that led to the botched law enforcement response to an active shooter who killed 19 children and two teachers in May 2022.

Authorities booked Arredondo on Thursday into the county jail, where he spent about 90 minutes before being released on bond.

A grand jury also indicted former school district police officer Adrian Gonzales, whose role has been less public in the two years and one month since the shooting. He had not been booked into jail as of Friday, and an indictment in his case remains under seal.

The indictments are the culmination of a six-month grand jury investigation that included months of in-person testimony,  including from Texas Department of Public Safety director Col. Steve McCraw.

The officers face up to two years behind bars and a $10,000 fine if convicted of the state jail felony charges.

Arredondo accused of leading botched police response

Law enforcement response to the Robb Elementary attack – the worst school shooting in Texas history – has drawn national scrutiny, with Arredondo centerstage of the criticism.

Days after the shooting, McCraw identified Arredondo as the incident commander and said he mistakenly treated the attacker as a barricaded subject rather than an active shooter, which requires immediate action to stop the gunman.

Law enforcement waited instead, leaving the gunman to continue killing children in a classroom.

Investigators later discovered the classroom door was never locked and there was no evidence any officer tried opening the door. The Uvalde school board three months after the shooting unanimously voted to fire Arredondo , who maintained that he appropriately responded to the attack.

"Any allegation of lack of leadership is wholly misplaced," Arredondo's attorney said in a statement on the day of the board's vote. "The complaint that an officer should have rushed the door, believed to be locked, to open it up without a shield capable of stopping an AR-15 bullet, without breaching tools … is tantamount to suicide."

Arredondo charged with failing to act

According to the indictment documents unsealed Friday, Arredondo is charged with failing to act to protect survivors of the attack, including Khloie Torres, who called 911 during the attack and begged for help. It also names Samuel Salinas, who said in interviews that he "played dead" to survive the attack.

The indictment says Arredondo "failed to respond as trained to an active shooter incident ... thereby delaying the response by law enforcement officers to an active shooter who was hunting and shooting a child or children in Room 112 at Robb Elementary School."

It says that after he was informed that children were injured in the classroom, he directed law enforcement officers to evacuate a wing of the school before confronting the 18-year-old shooter.

The indictment also accuses him of wrongly attempting to negotiate with the shooter and declaring to other police officers that they should not breach the classroom until an evacuation had occurred.

Indictments follow years of national scrutiny over police response

The charges follow two years of intense pressure among the families of many of the victims, who have repeatedly demanded accountability. They also come after a damning U.S. Department of Justice report in January that cited “cascading failures” in the botched law enforcement response.

"As a consequence of failed leadership, training, and policies, 33 students and three of their teachers — many of whom had been shot — were trapped in a room with an active shooter for over an hour as law enforcement officials remained outside," the report concluded.

The indictments also serve as yet another contrast from the initial false narrative of police heroism that authorities first provided. In the initial aftermath, officials said more children would have died had responding officers not acted more quickly — a story that fell apart over later weeks and months and was completely dismantled when the American-Statesman and KVUE-TV obtained a 77-minute video of the breakdown .

The cases mark the second and third times nationally that a law enforcement officer faced charges for failing to act during an on-campus shooting. Last year, a jury acquitted former sheriff’s deputy Scot Peterson of child neglect and other charges for failing to confront a shooter at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida, who killed 17 people.

He was the only armed school resource officer on campus when that 2018 shooting started. Legal experts said the case, had it resulted in a guilty verdict, could have set a precedent by more clearly defining the legal responsibilities of police officers during mass shootings.

Uvalde County District Attorney Christina Mitchell could not immediately be reached for comment. She has cited the ongoing grand jury investigation for not releasing investigative information sought by victims’ families and news organizations.

Contributing: Minnah Arshad, USA TODAY; Niki Griswold, Luz Moreno-Lozano, and Katie Hall, Austin American-Statesman; Reuters