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Volume 30, Number 8—August 2024
Persistence of influenza h5n1 and h1n1 viruses in unpasteurized milk on milking unit surfaces.
Suggested citation for this article
Examining the persistence of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) from cattle and human influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 pandemic viruses in unpasteurized milk revealed that both remain infectious on milking equipment materials for several hours. Those findings highlight the risk for H5N1 virus transmission to humans from contaminated surfaces during the milking process.
Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus was detected in US domestic dairy cattle in late March 2024, after which it spread to herds across multiple states and resulted in at least 3 confirmed human infections ( 1 ). Assessment of milk from infected dairy cows indicated that unpasteurized milk contained high levels of infectious influenza virus ( 2 ; L.C. Caserta et al., unpub. data, https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.05.22.595317 ). Exposure of dairy farm workers to contaminated unpasteurized milk during the milking process could lead to increased human H5 virus infections. Such infections could enable H5 viruses to adapt through viral evolution within humans and gain the capability for human-to-human transmission.
Figure 1 . Illustration of milking unit surfaces tested in a study of persistence of influenza H5N1 and H1N1 viruses in unpasteurized milk. Before attaching the milking unit (claw), a dairy worker disinfects...
The milking process is primarily automated and uses vacuum units, commonly referred to as clusters or claws, which are attached to the dairy cow teats to collect milk ( Figure 1 ) ( 3 ). However, several steps in the milking process require human input, including forestripping, whereby workers manually express the first 3–5 streams of milk from each teat by hand. Forestripping stimulates the teats for optimal milk letdown, improves milk quality by removing bacteria, and provides an opportunity to check for abnormal milk. The forestripping process can result in milk splatter on the floor of the milking parlor and surrounding equipment and production of milk aerosols.
After forestripping, each teat is cleaned and dried by hand before the claw is installed. During milking, a flexible rubber inflation liner housed within the stainless-steel shell of the claw opens to enable the flow of milk and closes to exert pressure on the teat to stop the flow of milk ( Figure 1 ). When the flow of milk decreases to a specific level, the claw automatically releases ( 3 ), at which point residual milk in the inflation liner could spray onto dairy workers, equipment, or the surrounding area. Of note, milking often takes place at human eye level; the human workspace is physically lower than the cows, which increases the potential for infectious milk to contact human workers’ mucus membranes. No eye or respiratory protection is currently required for dairy farm workers, but recommendations have been released ( 4 ).
Influenza virus persistence in unpasteurized milk on surfaces is unclear, but information on virus persistence is critical to understanding viral exposure risk to dairy workers during the milking process. Therefore, we analyzed the persistence of infectious influenza viruses in unpasteurized milk on surfaces commonly found in milking units, such as rubber inflation liners and stainless steel ( Figure 1 ).
For infectious strains, we used influenza A(H5N1) strain A/dairy cattle/TX/8749001/2024 or a surrogate influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 pandemic influenza virus strain, A/California/07/2009. We diluted virus 1:10 in raw unpasteurized milk and in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) as a control. As described in prior studies ( 5 – 7 ), we pipetted small droplets of diluted virus in milk or PBS onto either stainless steel or rubber inflation liner coupons inside an environmental chamber. We then collected virus samples immediately (time 0) or after 1, 3, or 5 hours to detect infectious virus by endpoint titration using a 50% tissue culture infectious dose assay ( 7 ). To mimic environmental conditions within open-air milking parlors in the Texas panhandle during March–April 2024, when the virus was detected in dairy herds, we conducted persistence studies using 70% relative humidity.
Figure 2 . Viral titers in a study of persistence of influenza H5N1 and H1N1 viruses in unpasteurized milk on milking unit surfaces. A) Viral titers of bovine A(H5N1) virus diluted 1:10 in...
We observed that the H5N1 cattle virus remained infectious in unpasteurized milk on stainless steel and rubber inflation lining after 1 hour, whereas infectious virus in PBS fell to below the limit of detection after 1 hour ( Figure 2 , panel A). That finding indicates that unpasteurized milk containing H5N1 virus remains infectious on materials within the milking unit. To assess whether a less pathogenic influenza virus could be used as a surrogate to study viral persistence on milking unit materials, we compared viral decay between H5N1 and H1N1 in raw milk over 1 hour on rubber inflation liner and stainless-steel surfaces ( Figure 2 , panel B). The 2 viruses had similar decay rates on both surfaces, suggesting that H1N1 can be used as a surrogate for H5N1 cattle virus in studies of viral persistence in raw milk. Further experiments examining H1N1 infectiousness over longer periods revealed viral persistence in unpasteurized milk on rubber inflation liner for at least 3 hours and on stainless steel for at least 1 hour ( Figure 2 , panel C). Those results indicate that influenza virus is stable in unpasteurized milk and that influenza A virus deposited on milking equipment could remain infectious for >3 hours.
Taken together, our data provide compelling evidence that dairy farm workers are at risk for infection with H5N1 virus from surfaces contaminated during the milking process. To reduce H5N1 virus spillover from dairy cows to humans, farms should implement use of personal protective equipment, such as face shields, masks, and eye protection, for workers during milking. In addition, contaminated rubber inflation liners could be responsible for the cattle-to-cattle spread observed on dairy farms. Sanitizing the liners after milking each cow could reduce influenza virus spread between animals on farms and help curb the current outbreak.
Dr. Le Sage is a research assistant professor at the University of Pittsburgh Center for Vaccine Research, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. Her research interests include elucidating the requirements for influenza virus transmission and assessing the pandemic potential of emerging influenza viruses.
We thank the Lakdawala lab members, Centers of Excellence for Influenza Research and Response (CEIRR) risk assessment pipeline meeting attendees, Rachel Duron, and Linsey Marr for useful feedback.
This project was funded in part with federal funds from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, under contract no. 75N93021C00015 and a National Institutes of Health award (no. UC7AI180311) from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases supporting the operations of the University of Pittsburgh Regional Biocontainment Laboratory in the Center for Vaccine Research. H5N1 studies were performed in accordance with select agent permit no. 20230320-074008 at the University of Pittsburgh.
This article was preprinted at https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.05.22.24307745v1 .
Suggested citation for this article : Le Sage V, Campbell AJ, Reed DS, Duprex WP, Lakdawala SS. Persistence of influenza H5N1 and H1N1 viruses in unpasteurized milk on milking unit surfaces. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024 Aug [ date cited ]. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid3008.240775
DOI: 10.3201/eid3008.240775
Original Publication Date: June 24, 2024
1 These first authors contributed equally to this article.
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In November 2023, 57% of voters in Ohio voted for Issue 2 , a ballot initiative which legalized adult recreational marijuana use and tasked the Ohio Departments of Commerce and Development with implementing a legal recreational cannabis industry in the state. As of December 7, 2023, individuals 21 years and older can legally consume and possess marijuana throughout Ohio, although recreational dispensaries are not expected to open until the summer or early fall of 2024. Like most other states that have legalized cannabis for recreational use, Ohio allows local jurisdictions to enact ordinances to prohibit or limit the operation of adult-use cannabis businesses within their boundaries. This page presents information on 58 active local moratoriums enacted by Ohio jurisdictions as of July 1, 2024. Please note that the list of moratoriums may not be comprehensive and will continue to be updated as new information becomes available.
The incorporation of a local business prohibition statute is common among the 24 states that have legalized adult cannabis use for recreational purposes. Only four states out of these 24—New Mexico, Rhode Island, Maryland, and Minnesota—do not give localities the power to prohibit businesses, although these states give localities the right to enact reasonable restrictions on time, place and manner of consumption. The extent to which localities opt out of the legal recreational market varies. For instance, in Michigan 73% of municipalities (1,300 out of 1,773) opted out; [1] in New York, only about 50% of municipalities (753 out of 1,520) opted out of allowing dispensaries within their boundaries. [2] . In comparison, the 61 Ohio municipalities that have passed moratoriums as of July 1, 2024, represent only a small fraction (just under 3%) of the 924 incorporated municipalities and 1,307 townships in the state of Ohio.
Ohio’s Issue 2 enacted Ohio Revised Code Section 3780.25, under which localities can enact ordinances prohibiting the operation of adult-use businesses, although they may not prohibit the operation of existing medical cannabis operators that are already located within their jurisdiction. Additionally, localities cannot pass ordinances prohibiting or limiting marijuana-related research conducted at state universities, levy a tax, fee, or charge on adult-use operators that are not being levied on other businesses within the municipal corporation or township, and they cannot prohibit or limit home grow, or any other activity authorized under Chapter 3780.
If a dispensary license is issued by the Division of Cannabis Control for a locality that does not have a moratorium in place, the locality has 120 days to enact an ordinance prohibiting the operations of the dispensary. Upon passage of the ordinance, the dispensary has 60 days to cease operations, or begin the process of initiating a petition to operate that would have to be voted on at the next general election.
While the current law gives communities the power to prohibit adult-use cannabis operators from their jurisdictions, it also created an incentive for municipalities to allow operators by establishing the Host Community Fund. Thirty-six percent of the recreational cannabis excise tax revenue collected by the state will be directed to the Host Community Fund, which is then distributed to municipal corporations or townships that have adult use dispensaries. This revenue, along with the local sales tax collected from the sale of recreational marijuana, can be used by communities to fund their own priorities. [3]
As of June 13, 2024, 61 Ohio municipal corporations or townships passed moratoriums prohibiting adult-use cannabis businesses. We were able to collect the language of 53 of these moratoriums. [4] The 61 jurisdictions represent just over 11% of Ohio’s population, with the average population of moratorium localities hovering just above 22,000 residents.
Of the 53 ordinances we collected, 52 jurisdictions enacted full moratoriums for all types of adult use operators. As shown in Table 1, 14 of these jurisdictions have left the length of the moratorium undefined, while the other jurisdictions averaged a moratorium of approximately nine months—23 are a full year or longer, while seven are six months or shorter. A handful of jurisdictions that enacted adult-use moratoriums already have operating medical marijuana establishments.
Place | Moratorium Active? | Moratorium Length | Date Enacted | Ending Date | Has An Active Medical Marijuana License? | Population |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ashland | Yes | Indeterminate | 1/2/2024 | Indeterminate | No | 19,225 |
Austintown Township | No | 275 days | 4/1/2024 | 1/1/2025 | No | 36,049 |
Avon Lake | Yes | Indeterminate | 12/19/2023 | Indeterminate | No | 25,206 |
Beachwood | Yes | Indeterminate | 12/18/2023 | Indeterminate | No | 25,191 |
Beavercreek | Yes | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Dispensary | 46,549 |
Bellefontaine | Yes | 365 days | 2/19/2024 | 2/19/2025 | No | 14,115 |
Bellville | Yes | 6 months | 1/9/2024 | 7/9/2024 | No | 1,963 |
Brunswick | Yes | 12 months | 12/18/2023 | 12/18/2024 | No | 35,426 |
Carlisle | Yes | 360 day | 11/28/2023 | 11/22/2024 | No | 5,501 |
Centerville | Yes | 9 months | 11/20/2023 | 8/20/2024 | No | 24,240 |
Clayton | Yes | 272 days | 12/18/2023 | 9/15/2024 | Processor | 13,310 |
Copley Township | Yes | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | No | 18,403 |
Eaton | Yes | 9 months | 1/15/2024 | 10/15/2024 | No | 8,375 |
Elyria | Yes | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Yes | 52,656 |
Fairfield | Yes | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | No | 44,907 |
Forest Park | Yes | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | No | 20,189 |
Franklin | Yes | Indeterminate | 12/18/2023 | Indeterminate | No | 11,690 |
Granville Township | Yes | Indeterminate | 5/8/2024 | Indeterminate | No | 10,244 |
Green | Yes | 12 months | 2/27/2024 | 2/27/2025 | No | 27,475 |
Hamilton | Yes | Indeterminate | 12/7/2023 | Indeterminate | No | 63,399 |
Hudson | Yes | 12 months | 12/12/2023 | 12/12/2024 | No | 23,110 |
Independence | Yes | Indeterminate | 6/11/2024 | Indeterminate | No | 7,584 |
Kettering | Yes | 9 months | 11/28/2023 | 8/28/2024 | No | 57,862 |
Kirtland | Yes | 226 days | 12/18/2023 | 7/31/2024 | No | 6,937 |
Lakewood | No | 254 days | 11/20/2023 | 7/31/2024 | Dispensary | 50,942 |
Lexington | Yes | Indeterminate | 1/16/2024 | Indeterminate | No | 4,848 |
Lisbon | Yes | 12 months | 2/27/2024 | 2/27/2025 | No | 2,597 |
Logan | Yes | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Dispensary | 7,296 |
Madison Township | Yes | Indeterminate | 3/4/2024 | Indeterminate | No | 11,106 |
Marysville | Yes | 309 days | 2/26/2024 | 12/31/2024 | No | 25,571 |
Medina Township | Yes | Indeterminate | 2/29/2024 | Indeterminate | No | 9,183 |
Miamisburg | Yes | 9 months | 12/5/2023 | 9/5/2024 | No | 19,923 |
Monroe | Yes | 9 months | 1/9/2024 | 10/9/2024 | Dispensary (4) Processor Cultivator | 15,412 |
Napoleon | Yes | 198 days | 1/15/2024 | 7/31/2024 | No | 8,862 |
New Franklin | Yes | 12 months | 3/6/2024 | 3/6/2025 | No | 13,877 |
North Olmsted | Yes | Indeterminate | 12/7/2023 | Indeterminate | No | 32,442 |
North Royalton | Yes | Indeterminate | 12/5/2023 | Indeterminate | No | 31,322 |
Northfield | Yes | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | No | 3,541 |
Norton | Yes | 333 days | 12/11/2023 | 11/8/2024 | No | 11,673 |
Obetz | Yes | 189 days | 3/25/2024 | 9/30/2024 | No | 5,489 |
Ontario | Yes | 6 months | 3/6/2024 | 9/6/2024 | No | 6,656 |
Orange | Yes | 6 months | 1/10/2024 | 7/10/2024 | No | 3,421 |
Painesville | Yes | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Unable to obtain document | Yes | 20,312 |
Perrysburg | Yes | 210 days | 5/7/2024 | 12/3/2024 | No | 25,041 |
Richmond Heights | Yes | 305 days | 12/19/2023 | 10/19/2024 | No | 10,801 |
Salem | Yes | 12 months | 1/16/2024 | 1/16/2025 | No | 11,915 |
Shelby | Yes | Indeterminate | 2/20/2024 | Indeterminate | No | 9,282 |
Springboro | Yes | 300 days | 12/7/2023 | 10/2/2024 | No | 19,062 |
Strongsville | Yes | Indeterminate | 3/18/2024 | Indeterminate | No | 46,491 |
Sycamore Township | Yes | Indeterminate | 12/5/2023 | Indeterminate | No | 19,563 |
Trotwood | Yes | 393 days | 12/4/2023 | 12/31/2024 | No | 23,070 |
Troy | No | 270 days | 8/7/2023 | 5/3/2024 | No | 26,305 |
Vandalia | Yes | 300 days | 12/4/2023 | 9/29/2024 | No | 15,209 |
Washington Township | Yes | 360 days | 11/20/2023 | 11/14/2024 | No | 61,682 |
Waynesville | Yes | 360 days | 12/18/2023 | 12/12/2024 | No | 2,669 |
West Carrollton | Yes | 9 months | 12/12/2023 | 9/12/2024 | No | 13,129 |
West Chester Township | Yes | 360 days | 1/9/2024 | 1/3/2025 | No | 64,830 |
Westerville | Yes | 203 days | 6/18/2024 | 1/7/2025 | No | 39,190 |
Westlake | Yes | 213 days | 12/31/2023 | 7/31/2024 | No | 34,228 |
Xenia | Yes | 365 days | 1/13/2024 | 1/13/2025 | No | 25,441 |
The moratoriums are generally brief and often describe the need to ensure “public peace, health, safety, and welfare of [the locality’s] citizens.” The moratoriums also often cite the need for time to review current ordinances and identify any conflicting laws with state laws legalizing marijuana, or to wait for lawmakers in the Ohio General Assembly to revise Issue 2 before making any changes to their own code. Multiple jurisdictions have indicated an intent to actively study current law and create recommendations for their locality once the final state rules for the adult-use recreational industry are adopted.
Purpose is to Preserve Public Health | Waiting for Full State Rules | City Council Actively Studying/Drafting Law Recommendations | City Can Shorten/Extend Moratorium |
---|---|---|---|
48 | 34 | 22 | 22 |
While approaching a recreational cannabis market carefully might be prudent, localities that prohibit adult-use operators are foregoing potentially significant tax revenue stemming from cannabis businesses being located within their boundaries. Though Ohio tax revenues will not begin to accrue until the second half of 2024, revenues soon thereafter are forecasted to be considerable. [5] In addition to money allocated through the Host Community Fund, localities with active adult-use operators will generate local sales tax revenue that can be used for purposes specific to the community.
Moratoriums also limit opportunities for local entrepreneurs seeking to enter the adult-use market as well as possible employment prospects for local residents. For instance, according to some reports, Michigan’s cannabis industry has created 45,000 full-time positions. [6] Because cannabis businesses advance economic development in myriad ways, municipalities and townships considering moratoriums need to weigh not only public health and public safety concerns, but also the potential benefits of economic development, job creation, and tax revenue.
Lastly, localities should consider the possibility that prohibiting adult-use operators could have the unintended effect of increasing efforts to access cannabis through other means by local residents. Localities cannot make cannabis possession or use or even home grow illegal, and some local citizens are likely to seek out cannabis despite local bans through home grow efforts, or by traveling to nearby localities to find legal stores, or by turning to illicit markets to fill the void. Localities should continuously examine whether public health and public safety concerns are best served through local prohibitions or through well-crafted regulatory efforts.
[1] Ken Haddad, “Here is which Michigan communities are opted out of adult-use marijuana sales”, December 12, 2023. Click on Detroit . https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/michigan/2023/12/12/heres-which-michigan-communities-are-opted-out-of-adult-use-marijuana-sales/
[2] Marijuana Opt-Out Tracker, Rockefeller Institute of Government, SUNY. https://rockinst.org/issue-areas/state-local-government/municipal-opt-out-tracker/
[3] The wording in the statute is as follows: “Thirty-six per cent to the host community cannabis fund for the benefit of municipal corporations or townships that have adult use dispensaries, and the municipal corporations or townships may use such funds for any approved purpose.” It is not clear what “approved purpose” means and which department, if any, is tasked with defining “approved purposes”.
[4] Avon Lake has enacted both a public consumption and adult use retail moratorium ordinances. Our center has collected language for both ordinances but does not include the public consumption ordinance in our count.
[5] Jana Hrdinova and Dexter Ridgway, “What Tax Revenues Should Ohioans Expect If Ohio Legalizes Adult-Use Cannabis?”, August 2023. Drug Enforcement and Policy Center. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4537855
[6] Angela Mulka, “Michigan's cannabis industry employs more than 46,000 workers”, April 26, 2024. Pioneer . https://www.bigrapidsnews.com/news/article/michigan-cannabis-industry-second-largest-in-us-19420833.php
FILE - Claire Fritz rallies for abortion rights at the Capitol, in Austin, Texas, May 14, 2022. A new study released by Johns Hopkins University on Monday, June 24, 2024, shows the infant death rate in Texas went up in the wake of the state’s abortion ban. ( Jay Janner/Austin American-Statesman via AP, File)
In the wake of Texas’ abortion ban, the state’s infant death rate increased and more died of birth defects, a study published Monday shows.
The analysis out of Johns Hopkins University is the latest research to find higher infant mortality rates in states with abortion restrictions.
The researchers looked at how many infants died before their first birthday after Texas adopted an abortion ban in September 2021. They compared infant deaths in Texas to those in 28 states — some also with restrictions. The researchers calculated that there were 216 more deaths in Texas than expected between March and December the next year.
In Texas, the 2022 mortality rate for infants went up 8% to 5.75 per 1,000 births, compared to a 2% increase in the rest of the U.S., according to the study in the journal JAMA Pediatrics.
Among causes of deaths, birth defects showed a 23% increase, compared to a decrease of about 3% in the rest of the U.S. The Texas law blocked abortions after the detection of cardiac activity, usually five or six weeks into pregnancy, well before tests are done to detect fetal abnormalities. Texas has since adopted a law that bans the procedure at any point in a pregnancy, except for when a pregnant patient has a life-threatening condition.
“I think these findings make clear the potentially devastating consequences that abortion bans can have,” said co-author Suzanne Bell, a fertility researcher.
Doctors have argued that the law is too restrictive toward women who face pregnancy complications, though the state’s Supreme Court last month rejected a case that sought to weaken it .
Infant deaths are relatively rare , Bell said, so the team was a bit surprised by the findings. Because of the small numbers, the researchers could not parse out the rates for different populations, for example, to see if rates were rising more for certain races or socioeconomic groups.
But the results did not come as a surprise to Tiffany Green, a University of Wisconsin-Madison economist and population health scientist who studies the consequences of racial inequities on reproductive health. She said the results were in line with earlier research on racial disparities in infant mortality rates due to state differences in Medicaid funding for abortions . Many of the people getting abortions are vulnerable to pregnancy complications, said Green, who was not part of the research.
Stephen Chasen, a maternal-fetal medicine specialist with Weill Cornell Medicine, said abortion restrictions have other consequences. Chasen, who had no role in the research, said people who carry out pregnancies with fetal anomalies need extra support, education and specialized medical care for the mother and newborn — all of which require resources.
This story was first published on Jun. 24, 2024. It was updated on Jul. 1, 2024. The original story reported the results of a study that analyzed infant mortality in Texas after the state passed a law that restricted access to abortion. The story should have made clear that Texas later passed another law that further restricted the procedure.
The Associated Press Health and Science Department receives support from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. The AP is solely responsible for all content.
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Thesis. Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master's or Doctoral degree, although it ...
Abstract. This guide for writers of research reports consists of practical suggestions for writing a report that is clear, concise, readable, and understandable. It includes suggestions for terminology and notation and for writing each section of the report—introduction, method, results, and discussion. Much of the guide consists of ...
What this handout is about. This handout provides a general guide to writing reports about scientific research you've performed. In addition to describing the conventional rules about the format and content of a lab report, we'll also attempt to convey why these rules exist, so you'll get a clearer, more dependable idea of how to approach ...
A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.
The discussion typically begins with a summary of the study that provides a clear answer to the research question. In a short report with a single study, this might require no more than a sentence. In a longer report with multiple studies, it might require a paragraph or even two.
An outline of the research questions and hypotheses; the assumptions or propositions that your research will test. Literature Review. Not all research reports have a separate literature review section. In shorter research reports, the review is usually part of the Introduction. A literature review is a critical survey of recent relevant ...
There are five MAJOR parts of a Research Report: 1. Introduction 2. Review of Literature 3. Methods 4. Results 5. Discussion. As a general guide, the Introduction, Review of Literature, and Methods should be about 1/3 of your paper, Discussion 1/3, then Results 1/3. Section 1: Cover Sheet (APA format cover sheet) optional, if required.
Research Report Summary: The entire objective along with the overview of research are to be included in a summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple components of the research are explained in brief under the report summary. ... Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to be established in the report and ...
Write up a state-of-the-art research report. Understand how to use scientific language in research reports. Develop a structure for your research report that comprises all relevant sections. Assess the consistency of your research design. Avoid dumbfounding your reader with surprising information.
Qualitative research analyzes data from direct field observations, in-depth, open-ended interviews and written documents. Inductive analyses yield patterns and themes that generate hypotheses and offer a basis for future research. ... There are a variety of checklists about how to report qualitative studies (3-6). The Canada Communicable ...
Preparing a report of a research trial is a special type of medical writing. The experienced author of research reports follows the IMRAD model: introduction, methods, results, and discussion, although this scheme is often expanded to include subheadings such as participants, randomization and intervention, data collection, outcomes, and ...
Use the section headings (outlined above) to assist with your rough plan. Write a thesis statement that clarifies the overall purpose of your report. Jot down anything you already know about the topic in the relevant sections. 3 Do the Research. Steps 1 and 2 will guide your research for this report.
This format is often used for lab reports as well as for reporting any planned, systematic research in the social sciences, natural sciences, or engineering and computer sciences. Introduction - Make a case for your research. The introduction explains why this research is important or necessary or important. Begin by describing the problem or ...
Writing a Research Report: Presentation. Tables, Diagrams, Photos, and Maps. - Use when relevant and refer to them in the text. - Redraw diagrams rather than copying them directly. - Place at appropriate points in the text. - Select the most appropriate device. - List in contents at beginning of the report.
In this section, we look at how to write an APA-style empirical research report, an article that presents the results of one or more new studies. Recall that the standard sections of an empirical research report provide a kind of outline. ... In a short report with a single study, this might require no more than a sentence. In a longer report ...
When reporting the methods used in a sample -based study, the usual convention is to. discuss the following topics in the order shown: Chapter 13 Writing a Research Report 8. • Sample (number in ...
14. Report when study was performed, including beginning and end dates of recruitment. Technology behind many tests advances continuously, leading to improvements in diagnostic accuracy. There may be a considerable gap between the dates of the study and the publication date of the study report. 15.
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section. In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research ...
Step 1: Consult the guidelines or instructions that the target journal or publisher provides authors and read research papers it has published, especially those with similar topics, methods, or results to your study. The guidelines will generally outline specific requirements for the results or findings section, and the published articles will ...
Clinical Researcher—September 2020 (Volume 34, Issue 8) PEER REVIEWED Sheryl Stewart, MCR, CCRP The tenets of Good Clinical Practice (GCP), promulgated by the International Council for Harmonization (ICH), require that investigator-initiated trials (IITs), especially those involving an Investigational New Drug application to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), have the principal ...
Incomplete reporting hampers the evaluation of results and bias in clinical research studies. Guidelines for reporting study design and methods have been developed to encourage authors and journals to include the required elements. ... How to report a research study Acad Radiol. 2014 Sep;21(9):1088-116. doi: 10.1016/j.acra.2014.04.016. Authors ...
Incomplete reporting hampers the evaluation of results and bias in clinical research studies. Guidelines for reporting study design and methods have been developed to encourage authors and journals to include the required elements. Recent efforts have been made to standardize the reporting of clinical health research including clinical guidelines.
Research Report Definition. According to C. A. Brown, "A report is a communication from someone who has information to someone who wants to use that information.". According to Goode and Hatt, "The preparation of report is the final stage of research, and it's purpose is to convey to the interested persons the whole result of the study, in sufficient detail and so arranged as to enable ...
A research report can be roughly broken into three parts: Study overview, findings, and next steps. I will describe each of these in detail while sharing sample slides. *Note that the content of ...
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To assess whether a less pathogenic influenza virus could be used as a surrogate to study viral persistence on milking unit materials, we compared viral decay between H5N1 and H1N1 in raw milk over 1 hour on rubber inflation liner and stainless-steel surfaces (Figure 2, panel B). The 2 viruses had similar decay rates on both surfaces ...
Globally, that number has gone from 4.84 in 1950 to 2.23 in 2021 and will continue to drop to 1.59 by 2100, according to the new analysis, which was based on the Global Burden of Diseases ...
In November 2023, 57% of Ohio voters voted for Issue 2, a ballot initiative which legalized adult recreational marijuana use and tasked the Ohio Departments of Commerce and Development with implementing a legal recreational cannabis industry in the state.As of December 7, 2023, individuals 21 years and older can legally consume and possess marijuana throughout Ohio, although recreational ...
A new study shows the infant death rate in Texas went up in the wake of the state's abortion ban. The analysis published Monday out of Johns Hopkins University is the latest research to find higher infant mortality rates in states with abortion restrictions. A new study shows the infant death rate in Texas went up in the wake of the state's ...